Punisher lxo;ik

Mercenaries

2008-12-17T05:05:00.000-08:00

March 29, 2004 "The Independent" -- An army of thousands of mercenaries has appeared in Iraq's major cities, many of them former British and American soldiers hired by the occupying Anglo-American authorities and by dozens of companies who fear for the lives of their employees. Many of the armed Britons are former SAS soldiers and heavily armed South Africans are also working for the occupation. "My people know how to use weapons and they're all SAS," said the British leader of one security team in southern Baghdad. "But there are people running around with guns now who are just cowboys. We always conceal our weapons, but these guys think they're in a Hollywood film." There are serious doubts even within the occupying power about America's choice to send Chilean mercenaries, many trained during General Pinochet's vicious dictatorship, to guard Baghdad airport. Many South Africans are in Iraq illegally--they are breaking new laws, passed by the government in Pretoria, to control South Africa's booming export of mercenaries. Many have been arrested on their return home because they are do not have the licence now required by private soldiers. Casualties among the mercenaries are not included in the regular body count put out by the occupation authorities, which may account for the persistent suspicion among Iraqis that the US is underestimating its figures of military dead and wounded. Some British experts claim that private policing is now the UK's biggest export to Iraq--a growth fueled by the surge in bomb attacks on coalition forces, aid agencies and UN buildings since the official end of the war in May last year. Many companies operate from villas in middle-class areas of Baghdad with no name on the door. Some security men claim they can earn more than lbs80,000 a year; but short-term, high-risk mercenary work can bring much higher rewards. Security personnel working a seven-day contract in cities like Fallujah, can make $1,000 a day. Although they wear no uniform, some security men carry personal identification on their flak jackets, along with their rifles and pistols. Others refuse to identify themselves even in hotels, drinking beer by the pool, their weapons at their feet. In several hotels, guests and staff have complained that security men have held drunken parties and one manager was forced to instruct mercenaries in his hotel that they must carry their guns in a bag when they leave the premises. His demand was ignored. One British company director, David Claridge of the security firm Janusian, has estimated that British firms have earned up to lbs800m from their contracts in Iraq--barely a year after the invasion of Iraq. One British-run firm, Erinys, employs 14,000 Iraqis as watchmen and security guards to protect the country's oil fields and pipelines. The use of private security firms has led to some resentment amongst the Department for International Development's aid workers--who fear it undermines the trust of Iraqi civilians. "DFID staff would prefer not to have this," said one source. "It's much easier for them to do their job without any visible security, but the security risks are great down there." One South African-owned firm, Meteoric Tactical Solutions, has a lbs270,000 contract with DFID which, it is understood, involves providing bodyguards and drivers for its most senior official in Iraq and his small personal staff. Another British-owned company, ArmorGroup has an lbs876,000 contract to supply 20 security guards for the Foreign Office. That figure will rise by 50 per cent in July. The firm also employs about 500 Gurkhas to guard executives with the US firms Bechtel and Kellogg Brown & Root. Opposition MPs were shocked by the scale of the Government's use of private firms to guard British civil servants, and claimed it was further evidence that the British army was too small to cope. Menzies Campbell, the Liberal Democrat's foreign affairs spokesman, said: "This suggests that British forces are unable to provide adequate protection and raises the vexed question of overstretch--particularly in light of the remarks by the Chief of the Defence Staff, last week that Britain couldn't stage another operation on the scale of Iraq for another five years." Andrew Robathan, a Tory MP on the international development select committee and former SAS officer, said: "The Army doesn't have the troops to provide static guards on this scale. Surely it would have been cheaper to have another battalion of troops providing guards." The UK's largest private security firm in Iraq, Global Risk Strategies, is helping the coalition provisional authority and the Iraqi administration to draft new regulations. It is expecting to increase its presence from 1,000 to 1,200 staff this spring, and could reach 1,800 this year. However, aid charities are disturbed by the sums being spent on security, since DFID has diverted lbs278m from its mainstream aid budget for Iraqi reconstruction. Dominic Nutt, of Christian Aid, said: "This sticks in the craw. It's right that DFID protects its staff, but this is robbing Peter to pay Paul."

Lap tops computers and pda's history

2008-12-12T05:43:00.001-08:00

History

Main article: History of laptops

The Epson HX-20

As the personal computer became feasible in the early 1970s, the idea of a portable personal computer followed; in particular, a "personal, portable information manipulator" was envisioned by Alan Kay at Xerox PARC in 1968^[6] and described in his 1972 paper as the "Dynabook"^[7].

The first commercially available portable computer appeared nine years later, in 1981. The Osborne 1 weighed 23.5 pounds (10.7 kg). It had no battery, a tiny 5" CRT screen and dual 5¼" single-density floppy drives. In the same year the first laptop-sized portable computer, the Epson HX-20, was announced^[8]. The Epson had a LCD screen, a rechargeable battery and a calculator-size printer in a 1.6 kg (4 pounds) enclosure.

The first laptop using the clamshell design, utilized today by almost all laptops, appeared in 1982. The $8150 GRiD Compass 1100 was purchased by NASA and the military among others. The Gavilan SC, released in 1983, was the first notebook marketed using the term "laptop".

From 1983 onwards:

Several new input methods were introduced: the touchpad (Gavilan SC, 1983), the pointing stick (IBM ThinkPad 700, 1992) and handwriting recognition (Linus Write-Top^[9], 1987).
CPUs became designed specifically for laptops (Intel i386SL, 1990), targeting low power consumption, and were augmented with dynamic power management features (Intel SpeedStep and AMD PowerNow!).
Displays reached VGA resolution by 1988 (Compaq SLT 286) and 256-color screens by 1993 (PowerBook 165c), progressing quickly to millions of colors and high resolutions.
High-capacity hard drives and optical storage (CD-ROM followed by DVD) became available in laptops soon after their introduction to the desktops.

Early laptops often had proprietary and incompatible architectures, operating systems and bundled applications.

[edit] Classification

The general terms "laptop" or "notebook" can be used to refer to a number of classes of small portable computers:^[10]^[11]

By purpose and (approximately) by screen size:

Desktop replacement - emphasizes performance, is less portable, 17" and larger screen;
Standard laptop - balances portability and features, 13-15" screen;
Subnotebook - emphasizes portability, has less features, 13" or smaller screen.

By features:

Budget - a cheap, lower-performance standard-sized laptop;
Tablet PC - Has a touch-screen interface, may or may not have a keyboard;
Netbook - A cheaper, smaller version of a subnotebook designed mainly for Internet surfing and basic office applications.
Rugged - Engineered to operate in tough conditions (strong vibrations, extreme temperatures, wet and dusty environments).

[edit] As replacement

An Apple 17" MacBook Pro is often used as a desktop replacement.

Main article: Desktop replacement computer

A desktop replacement computer is a laptop that provides most of the capabilities of a desktop computer, with a similar level of performance. Desktop replacements are usually larger and heavier than standard laptops. They contain more powerful components and numerous ports, and have a 17" or larger display. Because of their bulk, they are not as portable as other laptops and their operation time on batteries is typically shorter.^[11]

Some laptops in this class use a limited range of desktop components to provide better performance for the same price at the expense of battery life; in a few of those models, there is no battery at all, and the laptop can only be used when plugged in. These are sometimes called desknotes, a portmanteau of the words "desktop" and "notebook," though the term can also be applied to desktop replacement computers in general.^[12]

The names "Media Center Laptops" and "Gaming Laptops" are also used to describe this class of notebooks.^[10]

[edit] Subnotebook

Sony VAIO C1 subnotebook.

Main article: Subnotebook

A subnotebook, also called an ultraportable by some vendors, is a laptop designed and marketed with an emphasis on portability (small size, low weight and long battery life) that retains the performance of a standard notebook. Subnotebooks are usually smaller and lighter than standard laptops, weighing between 0.8 and 2 kg (2 to 5 pounds)^[10]; the battery life can exceed 10 hours^[13] when a large battery or an additional battery pack is installed.

To achieve the size and weight reductions, ultraportables use high resolution 13" and smaller screens (down to 6.4"), have relatively few ports, employ expensive components designed for minimal size and best power efficiency, and utilize advanced materials and construction methods. Some subnotebooks achieve a further portability improvement by omitting an optical/removable media drive; in this case they may be paired with a docking station that contains the drive and optionally more ports or an additional battery.

The term "subnotebook" is usually reserved to laptops that run general-purpose desktop operating systems such as Windows, Linux or Mac OS X, rather than specialized software such as Windows CE, Palm OS or Internet Tablet OS.

[edit] Netbook

An Asus Eee PC netbook.

Main article: Netbook

A netbook is a small laptop designed for portability and low price, with a performance inferior to that of a standard notebook yet adequate for surfing on the Internet and basic word processing. Netbooks use 10" and smaller screens, weigh 0.6 to 1.2 kg (1.5 to 3 pounds), and are generally powered by a CPU from one of the low-cost families with a high performance-to-power ratio such as Intel Atom, Celeron ULV, or VIA C7 processors.^[14]

Netbooks use general-purpose operating systems such as Linux or Windows XP. Some models use small-capacity (4 to 40 Gb) SSD drives instead of the usual HDDs to save weight and battery power.

[edit] Rugged Laptop

Main article: Rugged computer

A Panasonic Toughbook.

A rugged (or ruggedized) laptop is designed to reliably operate in harsh usage conditions such as strong vibrations, extreme temperatures and wet or dusty environments. Rugged laptops are usually designed from scratch, rather than adapted from regular consumer laptop models. Rugged notebooks are bulkier, heavier, and much more expensive than regular laptops^[15], and thus are seldom seen in regular consumer use.

The design features found in rugged laptops include rubber sheeting under the keyboard keys, sealed port and connector covers, passive cooling, superbright displays easily readable in daylight, cases and frames made of magnesium alloys or have a magnesium alloy rollcage^[16] that are much stronger than plastic found in commercial laptops and solid-state storage devices or hard disc drives that are shock mounted to withstand constant vibrations. Rugged laptops are commonly used by public safety services (police, fire and medical emergency), military, utilities, field service technicians, construction, mining and oil drilling personnel. Rugged laptops are usually sold to organizations, rather than individuals, and are rarely marketed via retail channels.

[edit] Components

Main article: Computer hardware

Miniaturization: a comparison of a desktop computer motherboard (ATX form factor) to a motherboard from a 13" laptop (2008 unibody Macbook)

The basic components of laptops are similar in function to their desktop counterparts, but are miniaturized, adapted to mobile use, and designed for low power consumption. Because of the additional requirements, laptop components have worse performance than desktop parts of comparable price. Furthermore, the design bounds on power, size, and cooling of laptops limit the maximum performance of laptop parts compared to that of desktop components. ^[17]

The following list summarizes the differences and distinguishing features of laptop components in comparison to desktop personal computer parts:

Motherboard - laptop motherboards are highly make- and model-specific, and do not conform to a desktop form factor. Unlike a desktop board that usually has several slots for expansion cards (3 to 7 are common), a board for a small, highly integrated laptop may have no expansion slots at all, with all the functionality implemented on the motherboard itself; the only expansion possible in this case is via an external port such as USB. Other boards may have one or more standard or proprietary expansion slots. Several other functions (storage controllers, networking, sound card and external ports) are implemented on the motherboard.^[18]

Central processing unit (CPU) - Laptop CPUs have advanced power-saving features and produce less heat than desktop processors, but are not as powerful.^[19] There is a wide range of CPUs designed for laptops available from Intel (Pentium M, Celeron M, Intel Core and Core 2 Duo), AMD (Athlon, Turion 64, and Sempron), VIA Technologies, Transmeta and others. On the non-x86 architectures, Motorola and IBM produced the chips for the former PowerPC-based Apple laptops (iBook and PowerBook). Some laptops have removable CPUs, although support by the motherboard may be restricted to the specific models.^[20] In other laptops the CPU is soldered on the motherboard and is non-replaceable.

A SODIMM memory module.

Memory (RAM) - SO-DIMM memory modules that are usually found in laptops are about half the size of desktop DIMMs.^[18] They may be accessible from the bottom of the laptop for ease of upgrading, or placed in locations not intended for user replacement such as between the keyboard and the motherboard.

Expansion cards - A PC Card (formerly PCMCIA) or ExpressCard bay for expansion cards is often present on laptops to allow adding and removing functionality, even when the laptop is powered on. Some subsystems (such as Wi-Fi or a cellular modem) can be implemented as replaceable internal expansion cards, usually accessible under an access cover on the bottom of the laptop. Two popular standards for such cards are MiniPCI and its successor, the PCI Express Mini. ^[21]

Power supply - laptops are powered by an internal rechargeable battery that is charged using an external power supply. The power supply can charge the battery and power the laptop simultaneously; when the battery is fully charged, the laptop continues to run on AC power. The charger adds about 400 grams (1 lb) to the overall "transport weight" of the notebook.

Battery - Current laptops utilize lithium ion batteries, with more recent models using the new lithium polymer technology. These two technologies have largely replaced the older nickel metal-hydride batteries. Typical battery life for standard laptops is two to five hours of light-duty use, but may drop to as little as one hour when doing power-intensive tasks. Batteries' performance gradually decreases with time, leading to an eventual replacement in one to five years, depending on the charging and discharging pattern. This large-capacity main battery should not be confused with the much smaller battery nearly all computers use to run the real-time clock and to store the BIOS configuration in the CMOS memory when the computer is off.

Video display controller - on standard laptops video controller is usually integrated into the chipset. This tends to limit the use of laptops for gaming and entertainment, two fields which have constantly escalating hardware demands^[22]. Higher-end laptops and desktop replacements in particular often come with dedicated graphics processors on the motherboard or as an internal expansion card. These mobile graphics processors are comparable in performance to mainstream desktop graphic accelerator boards.^[23]

Display - Most modern laptops feature 12 inch (30 cm) or larger color active matrix displays with resolutions of 1024×768 pixels and above. Many current models use screens with higher resolution than typical for desktop PCs (for example, the 1440×900 resolution of a 15" Macbook Pro^[24] can be found on 19" widescreen desktop monitors).

A size comparison of 3.5" and 2.5" hard disk drives

Removable media drives - a DVD/CD reader/writer drive is standard. CD drives are becoming rare, while Blu-Ray is not yet common on notebooks^[25]. Many ultraportables and netbooks either move the removable media drive into the docking station or exclude it altogether.

Internal storage - Hard disks are physically smaller—2.5 inch (60 mm) or 1.8 inch (46 mm) —compared to desktop 3.5 inch (90 mm) drives. Some new laptops (usually ultraportables) employ more expensive, but faster, lighter and power-efficient Flash memory-based SSDs instead. Currently, 160 to 250 Gb sizes are common for laptop hard disks (64 to 128 Gb for SSDs).

Input - A pointing stick, touchpad or both are used to control the position of the cursor on the screen, and an integrated keyboard is used for typing. External keyboard and mouse may be connected using USB or PS/2 (if present).

Ports - several USB ports, an external monitor port (VGA or DVI), audio in/out, and an Ethernet network port are found on most laptops. Less common are legacy ports such as a PS/2 keyboard/mouse port, serial port or a parallel port. S-video or composite video ports are more common on consumer-oriented notebooks.

[edit] Docking stations

A docking station is a relatively bulky laptop accessory that contains multiple ports, expansion slots and bays for fixed or removable drives. A laptop connects and disconnects easily to a docking station, typically through a single large proprietary connector. A port replicator is a simplified docking station that only provides connections from the laptop to input/output ports. Both docking stations and port replicators are intended to be used at a permanent working place (a desk) to offer instant connection to multiple input/output devices and to extend a laptop's capabilities.

Docking stations became a common laptop accessory in the early 1990s. The most common use was in a corporate computing environment where the company had standardized on a common network card and this same card was placed into the docking station. These stations were very large and quite expensive. As the need for additional storage and expansion slots became less critical because of the high integration inside the laptop, the "port replicator" has gained popularity. The port replicator was a cheaper, often passive device that simply mated to the connectors on the back of the notebook and allowed the user to quickly connect his laptop so that his monitor, keyboard, printer and other devices were instantly attached. As higher speed ports such as USB and Firewire became common, the connection of a port replicator to a laptop was accomplished by a small cable connected to one of the USB or FireWire ports on the notebook. Wireless Port Replicators are available as well.

A recent variant of the port replicator is the combined power/display/USB hub cable found in the new Apple Cinema Display^[26].

[edit] Standards

Some laptop components (optical drives, hard drives, memory and internal expansion cards) are relatively standardized, and it is possible to upgrade or replace them in many laptops as long as the new part is of the same type.^[21] Subtle incompatibilities and variations in dimensions, however, are not uncommon.^[27] Depending on the manufacturer and model, a laptop may range from having several standard, easily customizable and upgradeable parts to a proprietary design that can't be reconfigured at all.

In general, components other than the four categories listed above are not intended to be replaceable, and thus rarely follow a standard. In particular, motherboards, locations of ports, design and placement of internal components are usually make- and model-specific. Those parts are neither interchangeable with parts from other manufacturers nor upgradeable. If broken or damaged, they must be substituted with an exact replacement part. The users uneducated in the relevant fields are those the most affected by incompatibilities, especially if they attempt to connect their laptops with incompatible hardware or power adapters.

Intel, Asus, Compal, Quanta and other laptop manufacturers have created the Common Building Block standard for laptop parts to address some of the inefficiencies caused by the lack of standards.

[edit] Advantages

Laptop computers are portable and can be used in many locations (Former Mexican President, Vicente Fox).

Portability is usually the first feature mentioned in any comparison of laptops versus desktop PCs^[28]. Portability means that a laptop can be used in many places - not only at home and at the office, but also during commuting and flights, in coffee shops, in lecture halls and libraries, at clients' location or at a meeting room, etc. The portability feature offers several distinct advantages:

Getting more done - using a laptop in places where a desktop PC can't be used, and at times that would otherwise be wasted. For example, an office worker tackling his e-mails during a hour-long commute by train, or a student doing her homework at the university coffee shop during a break between lectures.^[29]

Immediacy - Carrying a laptop means having instant access to various information, personal and work files. Immediacy allows better collaboration between coworkers or students, as a laptop can be flipped open to present a problem or a solution anytime, anywhere.

Up-to-date information - If a person has more than one desktop PC, a problem of synchronization arises: changed made on one computer are not automatically propagated to the others. There are ways to resolve this problem, including physical transfer of updated files (using a USB stick or CDs) or using synchronization software over the Internet. However, using a single laptop at both locations avoids the problem entirely, as the files exist in a single location and are always up-to-date.

Connectivity - A proliferation of Wi-Fi wireless networks and cellular broadband data services (HSDPA, EVDO and others) combined with a near-ubiquitous support by laptops ^[30] means that a laptop can have easy Internet and local network connectivity while remaining mobile. Wi-Fi networks and laptop programs are especially widespread at university campuses.^[31]

Other advantages of laptops include:

Size - laptops are smaller than standard PCs. This is beneficial when space is at a premium, for example in small apartments and student dorms. When not in use, a laptop can be closed and put away.

Low power consumption - laptops are several times more power-efficient than desktops. A typical laptop uses 20-90 W, compared to 100-800 W for desktops. This could be particularly beneficial for businesses (which run hundreds of personal computers, multiplying the potential savings) and homes where there is a computer running 24/7 (such as a home media server, print server, etc.)

Quiet - laptops are often quieter than desktops, due both to better components (quieter, slower 2.5-inch hard drives) and to less heat production leading to use of fewer and slower cooling fans.

Battery - a charged laptop can run several hours in case of a power outage and is not affected by short power interruptions and brownouts. A desktop PC needs a UPS to handle short interruptions, brownouts and spikes; achieving on-battery time of more than 20-30 minutes for a desktop PC requires a large and expensive UPS.^[32]

[edit] Disadvantages

Compared to desktop PCs, laptops have disadvantages in the following fields:

[edit] Performance

While the performance of mainstream desktops and laptops is comparable, laptops are significantly more expensive than desktop PCs at the same performance level.^[33] The upper limits of performance of laptops are lower, and "bleeding-edge" features usually appear first in desktops and only then, as the underlying technology matures, are adapted to laptops.

However, for Internet browsing and typical office applications, where the computer spends the majority of its time waiting for the next user input, even netbook-class laptops are generally fast enough.^[34] Standard laptops are sufficiently powerful for high-resolution movie playback and light gaming. 3D gaming, video editing and encoding, and number-crunching software (databases, math, engineering, financial, etc.) are the areas where the laptops are at the biggest disadvantage.

[edit] Upgradeability

Upgradeability of laptops is very limited compared to desktops, which are thoroughly standardized. In general, hard drives and memory can be upgraded easily. Optical drives and internal expansion cards may be upgraded if they follow an industry standard, and all other internal components, including the CPU and graphics, are not intended to be upgradeable.

The reasons for limited upgradeability are both technical and economic. There is no industry-wide standard form factor for laptops; each major laptop manufacturer pursues its own proprietary design and construction, with the result that laptops are difficult to upgrade and have high repair costs. With few exceptions, laptop components can rarely be swapped between laptops of competing manufacturers, or even between laptops from the different product-lines of the same manufacturer.

Some upgrades can be performed by adding external devices, either USB or in expansion card format such a PC Card: sound cards, network adapters, hard and optical drives, and numerous other peripherals are available. But those upgrades usually impair the laptop's portability, because they add cables and boxes to the setup and often have to be disconnected and reconnected when the laptop is moved.

[edit] Ergonomics and health

Laptop coaster preventing heating of lap and improving laptop airflow.

Because of their small and flat keyboard and trackpad pointing devices, prolonged use of laptops can cause RSI.^[35] Usage of ergonomic keyboards and pointing devices is recommended to prevent injury when working for long periods of time; they can be connected to a laptop easily by USB or via a docking station. Some health standards require ergonomic keyboards at workplaces.

The integrated screen often causes users to hunch over for a better view, which can cause neck or spinal injuries. A larger and higher-quality external screen can be connected to almost any laptop to alleviate that and to provide additional "screen estate" for more productive work.

A study by State University of New York researchers found that heat generated from laptops can raise the temperature of the scrotum, potentially putting sperm count at risk. The small study, which included little more than two dozen men aged 13 to 35, found that the sitting position required to balance a laptop can raise scrotum temperature by as much as 2.1 °C (3.8 °F). Heat from the laptop itself can raise the temperature by another 0.7 °C (1.4 °F), bringing the potential total increase to 2.8 °C (5.2 °F). However, further research is needed to determine whether this directly affects sterility in men.^[36] A common practical solution to this problem is to place the laptop on a table or desk.

Heat from using a laptop on the lap can also cause skin discoloration on the thighs.^[37]

[edit] Durability

A clogged heatsink on a 2.5 year old laptop.

Due to their portability, laptops are subject to more wear and physical damage than desktops. Components such as screen hinges, latches, power jacks^[38] and power cords deteriorate gradually due to ordinary use. A liquid spill onto the keyboard, a rather minor mishap with a desktop system, can damage the internals of a laptop and result in a costly repair. One study found that a laptop is 3 times more likely to break during the first year of use than a desktop.^[39]

Original external components are expensive (a replacement AC adapter, for example, could cost $75); other parts are inexpensive - a power jack can cost a few dollars - but their replacement may require extensive disassembly and reassembly of the laptop by a technician. Other inexpensive but fragile parts often cannot be purchased separate from larger more expensive components.^[40] The repair costs of a failed motherboard or LCD panel may exceed the value of a used laptop.

Laptops rely on extremely compact cooling systems involving a fan and heat sink that can fail due to eventual clogging by accumulated airborne dust and debris. Most laptops do not have any sort of removable dust collection filter over the air intake for these cooling systems, resulting in a system that gradually runs hotter and louder as the years pass. Eventually the laptop starts to overheat even at idle load levels. This dust is usually stuck inside where casual cleaning and vacuuming cannot remove it. Instead, a complete disassembly is needed to clean the laptop.

Battery life of laptops is limited; the capacity drops with time, necessitating an eventual replacement after a few years.

[edit] Security

Being expensive, common and portable, laptops are prized targets for theft. The cost of the stolen business or personal data and of the resulting problems (identity theft, credit card fraud, breach of privacy laws) can be many times the value of the stolen laptop itself. Therefore, both physical protection of laptops and the safeguarding of data contained on them are of the highest importance.

Most laptops have a Kensington security slot which is used to tether the computer to a desk or other immovable object with a security cable and lock. In addition to this, modern operating systems and third-party software offer disk encryption functionality that renders the data on the laptop's hard drive unreadable without a key or a passphrase.

[edit] Other portable computing devices

There are several categories of portable computing devices that can run on batteries but are not usually classified as laptops: portable computers, keyboardless tablet PCs, Internet tablets, PDAs, handheld computers (UMPCs) and smartphones.

The Compaq Portable

A keyboard-less tablet PC

A Palm TX PDA

A Nokia N800 Internet tablet

An OQO handheld computer

An Apple iPhone smartphone

A Portable computer is a general-purpose computer that can be easily moved from place to place, but cannot be used while in transit, usually because it requires some "setting-up" and an AC power source. The most famous example is the Osborne 1. Also called a "transportable" or a "luggable" PC.

A Tablet PC that lacks a keyboard (also known as a non-convertible Tablet PC) is shaped like slate or a paper notebook, features a touchscreen with a stylus and handwriting recognition software. Tablets may not be best suited for applications requiring a physical keyboard for typing, but are otherwise capable of carrying out most tasks that an ordinary laptop would be able to perform.

An Internet tablet is an Internet appliance in tablet form. Unlike a Tablet PC, an Internet tablet does not have much computing power and its applications suite is limited - it can not replace a general purpose computer. Internet tablets typically feature an MP3 and video player, a web browser, a chat application and a picture viewer.

A Personal digital assistant (PDA) is a small, usually pocket-sized, computer with limited functionality. It is intended to supplement and to synchronize with a desktop computer, giving access to contacts, address book, notes, e-mail and other features.

A Handheld computer, also known as an Ultra Mobile PC (UMPC) is a full-featured, PDA-sized computer running a general-purpose operating system.

A Smart phone is a PDA with an integrated cellphone functionality. Current smartphones have a wide range of features and installable applications.

Boundaries that separate these categories are blurry at times. For example, the OQO UMPC is also a PDA-sized tablet PC; the Apple eMate had the clamshell form factor of a laptop, but ran PDA software. The HP Omnibook line of laptops included some devices small enough to be called handheld computers. The hardware of the Nokia 770 internet tablet is essentially the same as that of a PDA such as the Zaurus 6000; the only reason it's not called a PDA is that it doesn't have PIM software. On the other hand, both the 770 and the Zaurus can run some desktop Linux software, usually with modifications.

[edit] Major brands and manufacturers

Main article: List of laptop brands and manufacturers

There is a multitude of laptop brands and manufacturers; several major brands, offering notebooks in various classes, are listed in the box to the right.

The major brands usually offer good service and support, including well-executed documentation and driver downloads that will remain available for many years after a particular laptop model is no longer produced. Capitalizing on service, support and brand image, laptops from major brands are more expensive than laptops by smaller brands and ODMs.

Some brands are specializing in a particular class of laptops, such as gaming laptops (Alienware), netbooks (EeePC) and laptops for children (OLPC).

Many brands, including the major ones, do not design and do not manufacture their laptops. Instead, a small number of Original Design Manufacturers (ODMs) design new models of laptops, and the brands choose the models to be included in their lineup. In 2006, 7 major ODMs manufactured 7 of every 10 laptops in the world, with the largest one (Quanta Computer) having 30% world market share.^[41] Therefore, there often are identical models available both from a major label and from a low-profile ODM in-house brand.

Major laptop brands

Acer - TravelMate, Extensa, Ferrari and Aspire
Apple - MacBook, MacBook Air and MacBook Pro
ASUS - Asus Eee, Lamborghini
Compaq - Evo, Armada, LTE, and Presario
Dell - Inspiron, Latitude, Precision,Studio, Vostro and XPS
Gateway
Hewlett-Packard - HP Pavilion, HP Omnibook, HP Compaq Notebooks
Lenovo - ThinkPad, IdeaPad, and 3000 series
Panasonic - Toughbook, Satellite, Let's Note (Japan only) ^[42]
Samsung - SENS: M, P, Q, R and X series
Sony - VAIO: FJ Series, UX, TZ, NR, SZ, CR, FZ, and AR series
Toshiba - Dynabook, Equium, Portege, Tecra, Satellite, Qosmio, Libretto

X box

2008-12-12T05:38:00.001-08:00

The Xbox was Microsoft's first product that ventured into the video game console market, after having collaborated with Sega in porting Windows CE to the Dreamcast console. Notable launch titles for the console included Amped: Freestyle Snowboarding, Dead or Alive 3, Halo: Combat Evolved, Oddworld: Munch's Oddysee, and Project Gotham Racing.

[edit] Development

The Xbox 1st edition was initially developed within Microsoft by a small team, that included game developer Seamus Blackley. Microsoft repeatedly delayed the console, which was revealed at the end of 1999 following interviews of then-Microsoft CEO Bill Gates. Gates stated that a gaming/multimedia device was essential for multimedia convergence in the new times, confirmed by Microsoft with a press release. ^[4]

According to the book Smartbomb, by Heather Chaplin and Aaron Ruby, the remarkable success of the upstart Sony PlayStation worried Microsoft in late 1990s. The growing video game market seemed to threaten the PC market which Microsoft had dominated and relied upon for most of its revenues. Additionally, a venture into the gaming console market would diversify Microsoft's product line, which up to that time had been heavily concentrated on software.

According to Dean Takahashi's book, Opening the Xbox, the Xbox was originally to be named "DirectX-box", to show the extensive use of DirectX within the console's technology.^[5] "Xbox" was the final name decided by marketing, but the console still retains some hints towards DirectX, most notably the "X"-shaped logo, which DirectX is famous for, along with the "X" shape on the top of the system.

As the console approached launch, Microsoft's J Allard was responsible for the hardware and system software development, Ed Fries was responsible for game development on the platform, and Mitch Koch was responsible for sales and marketing; all three reported to Robbie Bach. This team was also primarily responsible for Microsoft's follow-up product, the Xbox 360.

[edit] Price history

Country	Release date
Europe	March 14, 2002
Finland	March 14, 2002
United Kingdom	March 14, 2002
North America	November 15, 2001
Australia	March 14, 2002
New Zealand	October 3, 2002
Japan	February 2, 2002
Mexico	October 17, 2002

With an expensive PlayStation 2 (PS2) and the moderately priced but seemingly family entertainment focused GameCube as competition, many gamers were eager to invest in the console. The Xbox initially sold very well. All three platform-holders had difficulty manufacturing and selling the systems profitably.

By September 15, 2005, Microsoft reported a four billion dollar loss in selling the Xbox gaming system.^[6]

[edit] Xbox 360

Main articles: Xbox 360 and List of Xbox games compatible with Xbox 360

NVIDIA ceased production of the Xbox's GPU in August 2005, which marked the end of Xbox production and the quick release of the Xbox 360 on November 22, 2005.

When equipped with a removable hard drive add-on, the Xbox 360 supports a limited number of the Xbox's game library through emulation. Emulation adds support for anti-aliasing as well as upscaling of the still standard definition image. These emulators are periodically updated to add compatibility for older games and are available for free through Xbox Live or as a file download to be burned to a CD/DVD from the Xbox web site. These updates are also available monthly as part of the demo disc that comes with each issue of Official Xbox Magazine. As the architectures are entirely different between Xbox and Xbox 360, software emulation is the only viable option for compatibility without including processors from the original Xbox.

[edit] Hardware and accessories

[edit] Hardware

See also: Xbox special limited editions

Xbox drives

The Xbox was the first console to incorporate a hard disk drive, used primarily for storing game saves compressed in ZIP archives and content downloaded from Xbox Live. This eliminated the need for separate memory cards (although some older consoles, such as the TurboGrafx-CD, Sega CD and Sega Saturn had featured built-in battery backup memory prior to 2007). An Xbox user could rip music from standard audio CDs to the hard drive, and these songs were used for the custom soundtracks in some games.^[7]

The Xbox was the first product in the gaming industry to feature Dolby Interactive Content-Encoding Technology, which allows real-time Dolby Digital encoding in game consoles. Previous game consoles could only utilize Dolby Digital 5.1 during non-interactive "cut scene" playback.^[8]

The Xbox is based on commodity PC hardware and runs a custom operating system which exposes APIs based largely on DirectX 8.1; the API commonality led to a common confusion that the OS was a stripped-down version of the Windows 2000 kernel.^[9]

The Xbox itself is much larger and heavier than its contemporaries. This is largely due to a bulky tray-loading DVD-ROM drive and the standard-size 3.5 inch hard drive. However, the Xbox has also pioneered safety features, such as breakaway cables for the controllers to prevent the console from being pulled from the surface on which it resides.

The original game controller design, which was particularly large, was similarly often criticized since it was ill-suited to those with small hands and caused cramping in the hands of some users. In response to these criticisms, a smaller controller was introduced for the Japanese Xbox launch. This Japanese controller (which was briefly imported by even mainstream video game store chains such as GameStop) was subsequently released in other markets as the "Xbox Controller S". In addition, all future Xbox consoles were shipped with a "Controller S", while the original controller (known as Controller "0" or "The Duke") was discontinued.^[10]

Several internal hardware revisions have been made in an ongoing battle to discourage modding (hackers continually updated modchip designs in an attempt to defeat them), to cut manufacturing costs, and to provide a more reliable DVD-ROM drive (some of the early units' drives gave Disc Reading Errors due to the unreliable Thomson DVD-ROM drives used). Later generations of Xbox units that used the Thomson TGM-600 DVD-ROM drives and the Philips VAD6011 DVD-ROM drives were still vulnerable to failure that rendered the consoles either unable to read newer discs or caused them to halt the console with an error code usually indicating a PIO/DMA identification failure, respectively. These units would not be covered under the extended warranty.

In 2002, Microsoft and NVIDIA entered arbitration over a dispute on the pricing of NVIDIA's chips for the Xbox.^[11] NVIDIA's filing with the SEC indicated that Microsoft was seeking a US$13 million discount on shipments for NVIDIA's fiscal year 2002. Additionally, Microsoft alleged violations of the agreement the two companies entered, sought reduced chipset pricing, and sought to ensure that NVIDIA fulfill Microsoft's chipset orders without limits on quantity. The matter was settled on February 6, 2003, and no terms of the settlement were released.^[12]

Launch-era Xbox gaming units were manufactured in Hungary, while the controllers were manufactured primarily in Indonesia.

[edit] Technical specifications

This section does not cite any references or sources.
Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed. (January 2008)

CPU: 32-bit 733 MHz Custom Intel Coppermine-based processor in a Micro-PGA2 package. 180 nm process.^[13]
- SSE floating point SIMD. Four single-precision floating point numbers per clock cycle.
- MMX integer SIMD.
- 133 MHz 64-bit GTL+ front side bus to GPU.
- 32 KB L1 cache. 128 KB on-die L2 "Advanced Transfer Cache".
Shared memory subsystem
- 64 MB DDR SDRAM at 200 MHz; 6.4 GB/s
- Supplied by Hynix or Samsung depending on manufacture date and location.
GPU and system chipset: 233 MHz "NV2A" ASIC. Co-developed by Microsoft and NVIDIA.
- Geometry engine: 115 million vertices/second, 125 million particles/second (peak)
- 4 pixel pipelines with 2 texture units each
- 932 megapixels/second (233 MHz x 4 pipelines), 1,864 megatexels/second (932 MP x 2 texture units) (peak)
  - Peak triangle performance (32pixel divided from filrate): 29,125,000 32-pixel triangles/sec raw or w. 2 textures and lit.
    - 485,416 triangles per frame at 60fps
    - 970,833 triangles per frame at 30fps
- 4 textures per pass, texture compression, full scene anti-aliasing (NV Quincunx, supersampling, multisampling)
- Bilinear, trilinear, and anisotropic texture filtering
- Similar to the GeForce 3 and GeForce 4 PC GPUs.
Storage media
- 2x – 5x (2.6 MB/s – 6.6 MB/s) CAV DVD-ROM
- 8 or 10 GB, 3.5 in, 5,400 RPM hard disk. Formatted to 8 GB. FATX file system.
- Optional 8 MB memory card for saved game file transfer.
Audio processor: NVIDIA "MCPX" (a.k.a. SoundStorm "NVAPU")
- 64 3D sound channels (up to 256 stereo voices)
- HRTF Sensaura 3D enhancement
- MIDI DLS2 Support
- Monaural, Stereo, Dolby Surround, Dolby Digital Live 5.1, and DTS Surround (DVD movies only) audio output options
Integrated 10/100BASE-TX wired ethernet
DVD movie playback
A/V outputs: composite video, S-Video, component video, SCART, HDMI Optical Digital TOSLINK, and stereo RCA analog audio
Resolutions: 480i, 576i, 480p, 720p, 1080i
Controller ports: 4 proprietary USB 1.1 ports
Weight: 3.86 kg (8.5 lb)
Dimensions: 320 × 100 × 260 mm (12.5 × 4 × 10.5 in)

[edit] Official accessories

[edit] Audio/video connectors

Standard AV cable: Provides composite video and monaural or stereo audio to TVs equipped with RCA inputs. Comes with the system. European systems come with an RCA jack to SCART converter block in addition to the cable.
RF Adapter: Provides a combined audio and video signal on an RF connector.
Advanced AV Pack: Provides S-Video and TOSLINK audio in addition to the RCA composite video and stereo audio of the Standard AV Cable.
High Definition AV Pack: Intended for HDTVs, it provides a YPrPb component video signal over three RCA connectors. Also provides analog RCA and digital TOSLINK audio outputs.
Advanced SCART cable: The European equivalent to the Advanced AV Pack, providing a full RGB video SCART connection in place of S-Video, RCA composite and stereo audio connections (composite video and stereo are still provided by the cable, through the SCART connector, in addition to the RGB signal), while retaining the TOSLINK audio connector. As Europe had no HDTV standard when the Xbox was released, no high definition cable was provided in those markets.

Numerous unofficial third-party cables and breakout boxes exist that provide combinations of outputs not found in these official video packages; however, with the exception of a few component-to-VGA converters and custom-built VGA boxes, the four official video packages represent all of the Xbox's possible outputs. This output selectivity is made possible by the Xbox's SCART-like AVIP port.

[edit] Networking

Ethernet (Xbox Live) cable: An Ethernet cable with RJ-45 connection for connecting the Xbox to a broadband modem or router. The Xbox also can connect to Xbox LIVE.
Xbox Wireless Adapter: a wireless bridge which converts data running through an Ethernet cable to a wireless (802.11b or 802.11g) signal to connect to a wireless LAN. While the official Wireless Adapter guarantees compatibility with the Xbox, almost any wireless bridge can be used.
Xbox Live Starter Kit: A subscription and installation pack for the Xbox Live service, as well as a headset (with monaural earpiece and microphone) that connects to a control box that plugs into the top expansion slot of a controller. The headset can in fact be replaced with most standard earpiece-and-microphone headsets; headset specialist Plantronics produces various officially licensed headsets, including a special-edition headset for Halo 2.
System Link cable: A Cat 5 Ethernet crossover cable for connecting together two consoles or a Cat 5 straight through cable used in conjunction with an Ethernet hub for connecting up to four consoles, for up to 16 total players. This functionality is similar to Sega's DirectLink for Sega Saturn.

[edit] Multimedia

Xbox Windows Media Center Extender: A software kit released by Microsoft which allows Xbox to act as a Windows Media Center Extender to stream content from a Windows XP Media Center Edition computer. It can also be used for DVD playback.

DVD Playback Kit: Required in order to play DVD movies, the kit includes an infrared remote control and receiver. DVD playback was not included as a standard feature of the Xbox due to licensing issues with the DVD format that would have added extra cost to the console's base price. By selling a DVD remote separately, Microsoft was able to bundle the cost of the DVD licensing fee with it. Although there is nothing to prevent the Xbox from acting as a progressive scan DVD player, Microsoft chose not to enable this feature in the Xbox DVD kit in order to avoid royalty payments to the patent-holder of progressive scan DVD playback. The DVD Playback kit only plays DVDs from the local region. The DVD Playback kit will also allow the Xbox to play VCD movies. By default, the Xbox can only play Xbox games and audio CDs.

Xbox Music Mixer: A utility software bundled with a microphone that connects to an adapter that plugs into the top expansion slot of a controller. It provides a music player with 2D/3D visualizations as well as basic karaoke functions. It also allows users to transfer pictures in JPEG format (to create slide shows) as well as audio in MP3 or WMA format (for karaoke or a custom game soundtrack) from a Windows XP or Windows Vista machine running the Xbox Music Mixer PC Tool.

[edit] Controllers and removable storage

The original Duke controller (left) and the Controller S (right).

The Xbox controller features two analog sticks, a directional pad, two analog triggers, a Back button, a Start button, two accessory slots and six 8-bit analog action buttons (A/Green, B/Red, X/Blue, Y/Yellow, Black and White).^[14]

The standard Xbox controller (also known as the "Duke" controller) was originally the Xbox controller for all territories except Japan. The Duke controller has been criticized for being relatively large and bulky compared to other video game controllers (it was awarded "Blunder of the Year" by Game Informer in 2001^[15] and a Guinness World Record for the biggest controller in Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition 2008). The black and white buttons are located above the A, B, X, and Y buttons, and the Back/Start buttons are located between and below the d-pad and right analog stick.

The Controller S, a smaller, lighter Xbox controller was originally the standard Xbox controller only in Japan (codenamed "Akebono").^[16] It was designed to be more comfortable for those with smaller hands.^[17]^[18] The controller S was released in other territories by popular demand, and eventually replaced the standard controller in the Xbox's retail package, with the larger original controller available as an accessory. The white and black buttons are located below the A, B, X, and Y buttons, and the Back/Start buttons are similarly placed below the left analog stick. This controller has received its share of criticism as well, especially with regards to placement of the black/white and back/start buttons.^[19]

An 8 MB removable solid state memory card can be plugged into the controllers, onto which game saves can either be copied from the hard drive when in the Xbox dashboard's memory manager or saved during a game. Most Xbox games can be copied to the memory unit and to another console but some Xbox saves are digitally signed, each console has a unique signing key, and some games (e.g., Ninja Gaiden and Dead or Alive Xtreme Beach Volleyball) will not load saved games signed by a different Xbox, limiting the utility of the memory card. Additionally, game saves can be tagged as uncopyable, or simply padded to over 8 MB (Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic). The signing mechanism has been reverse-engineered by the Xbox hacking community, who have developed tools to modify savegames to work in a different console, though the signing key of the recipient Xbox (the 'HDkey'), and the ramped-up title key of the game (the 'authkey'), must be known. It is also possible to save an Xbox Live account on a memory unit, to simplify its use on more than one Xbox.

[edit] Games

Main articles: List of Xbox launch titles and List of Xbox games

The Xbox launched in North America on November 15, 2001. The greatest success of the Xbox's launch titles was Halo: Combat Evolved which was well received by critics.^[20] Its sequel, Halo 2, is the best-selling first-generation Xbox game worldwide.^[3] Other successful launch titles included NFL Fever 2002,^[21] Project Gotham Racing,^[22] and Dead or Alive 3;^[23] however, the failure of several first-party games (including Azurik: Rise of Perathia)^[24] damaged the initial public reputation of the Xbox.

Although the console enjoyed strong third party support from its inception, many early Xbox games did not take full advantage of its powerful hardware, with few additional features or graphical improvements to distinguish them from the PS2 version, thus negating one of the Xbox's main selling points. Additionally, Sony countered the Xbox for a short time by temporarily securing PlayStation 2 exclusives for highly anticipated games such as the Grand Theft Auto series and Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty (although they were later ported to the Xbox and are no longer exclusive).

In 2002 and 2003, several releases helped the Xbox to gain momentum and distinguish itself from the PS2. The Xbox Live online service was launched in late 2002 alongside pilot titles MotoGP, MechAssault and Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon. Several best-selling and critically acclaimed titles for the Xbox were published, such as Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell, Ninja Gaiden and LucasArts' Star Wars: Knights of the Old Republic. Take-Two Interactive's exclusivity deal with Sony was amended to allow Grand Theft Auto III and its sequels to be published on the Xbox. In addition, many other publishers got into the trend of releasing the Xbox version alongside the PS2 version, instead of delaying it for months.

In 2004, Halo 2 set records as the highest-grossing release in entertainment history making over $125 million in its first day,^[25] as well as being a successful killer app for the online service. That year, Microsoft and Electronic Arts reached a deal that would see the latter's popular titles enabled on Xbox Live.

[edit] Xbox Live

Xbox Live logo

Main article: Xbox Live

On November 15, 2002, Microsoft launched its Xbox Live online gaming service, allowing subscribers to play online Xbox games with (or against) other subscribers all around the world and download new content for their games to the system's hard drive. This online service works exclusively with a broadband Internet connection. Approximately 250,000 subscribers had signed up within two months of Xbox Live's launch.^[26] In July 2004, Microsoft announced that Xbox Live had reached one million subscribers, and a year later, in July 2005, that membership had reached two million.

[edit] Xbox modding

Xbox motherboard with installed modchip.

The popularity of the Xbox, as well as its relatively short 90 day warranty, inspired efforts to circumvent the built-in hardware and software security mechanisms, a practice informally known as modding. Within a few months of its release the Xbox BIOS was dumped and hacked by MIT student Andrew Huang so that it would skip digital signature checks and media flags, allowing unsigned code, Xbox game backups, etc., to be run. This was possible due to flaws in the Xbox's security.^[27]^{[unreliable source?]} Modding an Xbox in any manner will void its warranty, as it may require disassembly of the console. Having a modified Xbox will also disallow it from accessing Xbox Live as it contravenes the Xbox Live Terms of Use,^[28] however most modchips can be disabled, allowing the Xbox to boot in a "stock" configuration, softmods can be disabled by "coldbooting" a game (having the game in the DVD drive before turning the console on, so the softmod is not loaded) or by using a multiboot configuration.

Four main methods exist of modding the Xbox :

Modchip: Installing a modchip inside the Xbox that bypasses the original BIOS, with a hacked BIOS to circumvent the security mechanisms.^[29]
TSOP flashing: Re-flashing the onboard BIOS chip with a hacked BIOS to circumvent the security mechanisms. The Xbox BIOS is contained on a commodity EEPROM (the 'TSOP'), which can be made writable by the Xbox by bridging points on the motherboard.^[30] Flashing is usually carried out by using a specially crafted gamesave (see 'Game save exploit', below) to flash the onboard TSOP, but the TSOP can also be de-soldered and re-written in a standard EEPROM programmer. This method only works on 1.0 to 1.5 Xboxes, as later versions replace the commodity TSOP with an LPC ROM contained within a proprietary chip.^[31]
Softmods: Installing additional software files to the Xbox hard drive, which exploit programming errors in the Dashboard to gain control of the system, and overwrite the in-memory copy of the BIOS.^[32] Soft modification is known to be safe for Xbox Live if the user enables multibooting with the Microsoft dashboard and an original game disc is used.^[33]
- Game save exploit: Using select official game releases to load game saves that exploit buffer overflows in the save game handling.^[34] When these special game saves are loaded, they access an interface with scripts for installing the necessary softmod files. Disassembly of the Xbox is not required when installing most game save exploits.
- Hot swap: Using a computer to change the data on the hard drive. This requires having the Xbox unlock the hard drive when it is turned on, then swapping the powered hard drive into a running computer. By using a Linux-based Live CD, data on the hard drive can be read, altered, and deleted. In most cases, an automated script will automatically install the softmod files directly to the Xbox hard drive. This technique has been used extensively to harbor cheating on many online games. Disassembly of the console is required to perform a hot swap.

[edit] Operating Systems

Beyond gaming, a modded Xbox can be used as a media center with the Xbox Media Center.^[35]

There are also distributions of Linux developed specifically for the Xbox, including those based on Gentoo, Debian (see also Xebian), Damn Small Linux, and Dyne:bolic.

Alternative operating systems:

Xbox Linux is a project that ported Linux to the Xbox.
FreeBSD has also been ported to Xbox.
Windows CE ^[36]
Windows 98 ^[37]
Mac OSX made possible through emulation via PearPC on Xebian Linux ^[38]

One advantage over a regular, unmodded Xbox, is the ability to use a trainer.

[edit] UK advertising controversy

In 2002 the Independent Television Commission (ITC) banned a television advertisement for the Xbox in the United Kingdom after responses from certain members of the public deemed it distasteful. It depicted a mother giving birth to a boy who is fired like a projectile through the hospital window and ages rapidly as he flies through the air screaming, before crashing into his own grave. The advertisement ended with the slogan Life is short. Play more.^[39]

ps3

2008-12-12T05:35:00.000-08:00

Sony officially unveiled the PlayStation 3 to the public on May 16, 2005, during the E3 2005 conference.^[19] A functional version of the system was not present there,^[20] nor at the Tokyo Game Show in September 2005,^[21] although demonstrations (such as Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots^[20]) were held at both events on devkits and comparable PC hardware.^[20]^[21] Video footage based on the predicted PlayStation 3 specifications was also shown (e.g. Mobile Suit Gundam: Crossfire).^[22]

The initial prototype shown in May 2005 featured two HDMI ports, three Ethernet ports and six USB ports;^[23] however, when the system was shown again a year later at E3 2006, these were reduced to one HDMI port, one ethernet port and four USB ports, presumably to cut costs.^[16]^[24] Two hardware configurations were also announced for the console: a 20 GB model and a 60 GB model, priced at $499 (€499) and $599 (€599), respectively.^[16] The 60 GB model would be the only configuration to feature an HDMI port, Wi-Fi internet, flash card readers and a chrome trim with the logo in silver.^[16] Both models were announced for a simultaneous worldwide release: November 11 for Japan, and November 17 for North America and Europe.^[25]

On September 6, 2006, Sony announced that the PAL region (Europe and Oceania) PlayStation 3 launch would be delayed until March 2007, due to a shortage of materials used in the Blu-ray Disc drive.^[26]

At the Tokyo Game Show on September 22, 2006, Sony announced that it would include an HDMI port on the 20 GB system, but a chrome trim, flash card readers, silver logo, and Wi-Fi would not be included.^[27] Also, the launch price of the Japanese 20 GB model was reduced by over 20%,^[28] and the 60 GB model was announced for an open pricing scheme in Japan.^[28] During the event, Sony showed 27 playable PS3 titles running on final hardware.^[29]

Launch

Main article: PlayStation 3 launch

The PlayStation 3 was first released in Japan on November 11, 2006 at 07:00.^[12] According to Media Create, 81,639 PS3 systems were sold within 24 hours of its introduction in Japan.^[30]

Soon after its release in Japan, the PS3 was released in North America on November 17, 2006.^[13] Reports of violence surrounding the release of the PS3 include a customer shot,^[31] campers robbed at gunpoint,^[32] customers shot in a drive-by shooting with BB guns,^[33] and 60 campers fighting over 10 systems.^[34]

On January 24, 2007, Sony announced that the PlayStation 3 would go on sale on March 23, 2007 in Europe, Australia, the Middle East, Africa and New Zealand.^[14]^[15] The system sold about 600,000 units in its first two days.^[35] On March 7, 2007, the 60 GB PlayStation 3 launched in Singapore with a price of S$799.^[36] The console was launched in South Korea on June 16, 2007 in a single version equipped with an 80 GB hard drive and IPTV.^[37]

Retail configurations

For more details on this topic, see Timeline of PlayStation 3 SKUs.

There are five PlayStation 3 hardware models that are commonly referred to by the size of their included hard disk drive: "20", "40", "60", "80" and "160" GB models.^[16]^[38]

All retail packages include one or two Sixaxis controllers and/or a DualShock 3 controller (beginning June 12, 2008^[39]^[40]), one miniUSB to USB cable (for connecting the controller to the system), one composite video/stereo audio output cable, one ethernet cable (20, 60, and 2007 80 GB only) and one power cable.^[38]^[41]^[42]

Model	Model number(s) ^[a]	Available colors	USB 2.0 ports	802.11 b/g Wi-Fi	Flash card readers	SACD support^[43]	PS2 compatibility	First available	In production
20 GB (NTSC) ^[44]	CECHBxx	Piano Black	4	No	No	Yes	Yes Hardware (Emotion Engine)	2006-11-01November 2006	No^[45]
40 GB (PAL, NTSC)^[46]	CECHGxx, CECHHxx	Piano Black Ceramic white^[b] Satin silver^[c]^[47] Gun-Metal Gray^[d]^[48]	2	Yes	No	No	No	2007-10-01 October 2007 November 2007	No^[49]
60 GB (NTSC) ^[44]	CECHAxx	Piano Black	4	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes Hardware (Emotion Engine)	2006-11-01November 2006	No
60 GB (PAL) ^[44]	CECHCxx	Piano Black	4	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes Software (emulation)	2007-03-01March 2007	No
80 GB (NTSC) ^[44]	CECHExx	Piano Black	4	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes Software (emulation)	2007-08-01August 2007	No
80 GB (PAL, NTSC) ^[49]^[50]	CECHKxx	Piano Black	2	Yes	No	No	No	2008-08-01 August 2008 October 2008	Yes
160 GB (PAL, NTSC) ^[51]^[52]	CECHPxx	Piano Black	2	Yes	No	No	No	2008-10-01 October 2008 November 2008	Yes

All models include: Blu-ray/DVD/CD drive, HDMI 1.3a,^[53] Bluetooth 2.0, Gigabit Ethernet (10BASE-T, 100BASE-TX, 1000BASE-T), PlayStation One backward compatibility^[54] through software emulation,^[55] and a glossy finish^[56]

^ a Model numbers differ by region. See PlayStation 3 hardware – model numbers for details.
^ b Ceramic white model available in Asia and Japan only.
^ c Satin silver model available in Asia and Japan only.
^ d Gun-Metal Gray model is only available as part of the MGS4 bundle.

In addition to all of the features of the 20 GB model, the 60 GB model has internal IEEE 802.11 b/g Wi-Fi, multiple flash card readers (SD/MultiMedia Card, CompactFlash Type I/Type II, Microdrive,^[57] Memory Stick/PRO/Duo), and a chrome coloured trim.^[44] In terms of hardware, the 80 GB model released in South Korea is identical to the 60 GB model released in the PAL regions, except for the difference in hard drive size.^[58] Like the South Korean and European models, the North American 80 GB model also excludes the PlayStation 2 "Emotion Engine" CPU chip.^[59] However, it still keeps the "Graphics Synthesizer" GPU.^[60] Due to emulation of the "Emotion Engine", the level of compatibility was reduced^[59] (see PlayStation 3 games - Removal of hardware support for more details). The 40 GB, 80 GB (2008), and 160 GB models have two USB ports instead of the four USB ports on other models, and do not include multiple flash card readers, SACD support, or any backwards compatibility with PlayStation 2 games.^[59]^[18] This was due to the removal of "Graphics Synthesizer" GPU, which stripped the units of all PlayStation 2 based hardware.^[46]^[50]

No official Wi-Fi or flash memory card readers have yet been released by Sony for the 20 GB system, although plans for such add-ons are in place.^[61] Nevertheless, as the model features four USB 2.0 ports, wireless networking and flash memory card support can already be obtained through the use of widely available external USB adapters.^[59]

It was rumored that the Cell processors in the third-generation PS3s (40 GB) would move from a 90nm process to the newer 65nm process,^[62] which SCEI CEO Kaz Hirai later confirmed.^[63] This change lowers the power consumption of the console and makes it less expensive to produce.^[62]

Sales and production costs

See also: PlayStation 3 launch — Release data and pricing

Region	Units sold	First available
Canada	520,000 as of August 1, 2008^[64]	November 17, 2006
Europe	5 million as of May 6, 2008^[65]	March 23, 2007
Japan	2,369,484 as of October 1, 2008^[66]	November 11, 2006
United Kingdom	1.4 million as of September 2008^[67]	March 23, 2007
United States	5.7 million as of November 1, 2008^[68]	November 17, 2006
Worldwide	16.84 million as of September 30, 2008^[2]	(more...)

The PlayStation 3's initial production cost is estimated to have been US$805.85 for the 20 GB model and US$840.35 for the 60 GB model.^[69] However, they were priced at US$499 and US$599 respectively,^[70] meaning that every unit was sold at an estimated loss of $250,^[69] contributing to Sony's games division posting an operating loss of ¥232.3 billion (US$1.97 billion) in the fiscal year ending March 2007.^[71] In April 2007, soon after these results were published, Ken Kutaragi, President of Sony Computer Entertainment, announced plans to retire. Various news agencies, including The Times^[72] and The Wall Street Journal^[73] reported that this was due to poor sales, whilst SCEI maintains that Kutaragi had been planning his retirement for six months prior to the announcement.^[73]

In January 2008, Kaz Hirai, CEO of Sony Computer Entertainment, suggested that the console may start making a profit by early 2009, stating that, "the next fiscal year starts in April and if we can try to achieve that in the next fiscal year that would be a great thing" and, "that (profitability) is not a definite commitment, but that is what I would like to try to shoot for".^[74] However, market analysts Nikko Citigroup have predicted that the PlayStation 3 could be profitable by August 2008.^[75] As of July 20, 2008, Sony continues to incur a loss on every PlayStation 3 unit sold.^[76] In a July 2008 interview, Hirai stated that his objective was for the PlayStation 3 to sell 150 million units by its ninth year, surpassing the PlayStation 2's sales of 140 million in its nine years on the market.^[76]

Since the system's launch, production costs have been reduced significantly as a result of phasing out the Emotion Engine chip and falling hardware costs.^[77]^[78] The cost of manufacturing Cell microprocessors has fallen dramatically as a result of moving to the 65 nm production process,^[79]^[78] and Blu-ray diodes have become cheaper to manufacture.^[77]^[80] As of January 2008, each unit costs around $400 to manufacture.^[81]^[82]

On January 7, 2007, Sony met its goal of shipping 1 million units to North America.^[83] Just over a week later, on January 16, 2007, Sony confirmed they had shipped 1 million units in Japan, bringing the worldwide total to over 2 million shipped.^[84] As of April 1, 2007, approximately 5.5 million units had been shipped worldwide.^[71]

The PlayStation 3 is currently behind its competitor systems, the Wii and the Xbox 360, in total worldwide sales. In Japan during 2007, the Wii outsold the PlayStation 3 by as much as 6 to 1 in some months.^[85]^[86]^[87] According to Famitsu, the PlayStation 3 has been more successful in Japan with 2,369,484 PlayStation 3 consoles sold as of October 1, 2008; outselling the Xbox 360, which was released almost a year earlier than its competitors, which sold 748,992 units; both the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 were outsold by the Wii, which sold 6,826,612 units.^[66]

From October to November 2007, sales of the PlayStation 3 went up by 285% in the United States.^[88] Sony CEO Howard Stringer attributed the growth to a price cut and Nintendo's inability to manufacture the Wii system at a rate high enough to meet public demand.^[89]

In 2007, the PlayStation 3 had sold 2.56 million units in the US according to the NPD Group,^[90]^[91] 1,206,347 in Japan according to Enterbrain,^[92]^[93] and an estimated 2.8 million in Europe according to Electronic Arts.^[94]^[95] In 2007, the Wii had outsold the PlayStation 3 by 3:1 in Japan, while the Xbox 360 had sold 257,841 units in that region that year, according to Enterbrain.^[96]^[97]

As of January 1, 2008, the PlayStation 3 has sold over 180,000 units in Australia according to GameSpot.^[98] As of September 2008, the PS3 has sold 1.4 million units in the United Kingdom, according to GfK Chart-Track.^[67]

In the United States, the PlayStation 3 outsold the Xbox 360 for the first time in January 2008 according to the NPD Group;^[99]^[100]^[101] however, a day prior to the NPD sales figures being released, Microsoft said that the Xbox 360 had shortages for that month in the US.^[102]^[103]^[104] Prior to January 2008, the PlayStation 3 had been a consistent third behind the Wii and the Xbox 360 in US sales in most months since the PS3 and Wii were released, according to data by the NPD Group.^[103] The PlayStation 3 also outsold the Xbox 360 in February 2008,^[105]^[106] but was then outsold by the Xbox 360 in March 2008 according to the NPD Group.^[107] In June 2008 PS3 again outsold Xbox 360 by a margin of 405,500 to 219,800.^[108] As of November 1, 2008, the PlayStation 3 has sold 5.7 million units in the US, according to the NPD Group.^[68]

According to Sony Computer Entertainment Europe, the PlayStation 3 had outsold the Xbox 360 from October 2007 onwards in Europe and in May 2008 it surpassed the Xbox 360 (which was released 16 months prior to the PlayStation 3) in total European sales.^[65]^[109]^[110]

In the first seven months of 2008, the PlayStation 3 has sold 200,000 units in Canada, outselling the Xbox 360 which sold 154,000 units; however, the PlayStation 3 was outsold by the Wii with 376,000 units; the PlayStation 3 has sold a total of 520,000 units in Canada as of August 1, 2008.^[64]

Hardware and accessories

Hardware

Main article: PlayStation 3 hardware

A 60 GB PlayStation 3 unit with a box and controller

The PlayStation 3 is convex on its left side when vertical (the top side is convex when horizontal), and has a glossy black finish with the Playstation logo on the left side.^[111] Playstation designer Teiyu Goto stated that the Spider-Man font-inspired logo "was one of the first elements [SCEI president Ken Kutaragi] decided on and the logo may have been the motivating force behind the shape of PS3."^[112]

The PlayStation 3 features a slot-loading 2x speed Blu-ray Disc drive for games, Blu-ray movies, DVDs, CDs, and other optical media.^[113] It was originally available with hard drives of 20 and 60 GB^[114] (only the 60 GB model was available in PAL regions).^[17] An 80 GB model has since been introduced in NTSC regions,^[115] and a 40 GB model has been introduced in all regions.^[116]^[117] All PS3 models have user-upgradeable 2.5" SATA hard drives.^[118]

The PlayStation 3 uses the IBM-designed Cell microprocessor as its CPU, utilizing seven of the eight "synergistic processing elements" (often shortened to SPE).^[119] The eighth SPE is disabled to improve chip yields (i.e. chips do not have to be discarded if one of the SPEs is defective).^[120]^[121] Only six of the seven SPEs are accessible to developers as one is reserved by the OS.^[121] Graphics processing is handled by the NVIDIA RSX 'Reality Synthesizer', which can output resolutions from 480i/576i SD up to 1080p HD.^[113] The PlayStation 3 has 256 MB of XDR main memory and 256 MB of GDDR3 video memory for the RSX.^[122]

The system has Bluetooth 2.0, gigabit Ethernet, USB 2.0 and HDMI 1.3a built in on all currently shipping models.^[113] Wi-Fi networking is also built-in on the 40, 60 and 80 GB models while a flash card reader (compatible with Memory Stick, SD/MMC, and CompactFlash/Microdrive media) is built-in on 60 GB and current 80 GB models.^[113]^[122]

The PS3's hardware has also been used to build supercomputers for high-performance computing.^[123] Terra Soft Solutions has a version of Yellow Dog Linux for the PlayStation 3,^[124] and sells PS3s with Linux pre-installed,^[125] in single units, and 6 and 32 node clusters.^[126] In addition, RapidMind is pushing their stream programming package for the PS3.^[127] Also, on January 3, 2007, Dr. Frank Mueller, Associate Professor of Computer Science at NCSU, clustered 8 PS3s. Mueller commented that the 512 MB of system RAM is a limitation for this particular application, and is considering attempting to retrofit more RAM. Software includes: Fedora Core 5 Linux ppc64, MPICH2, OpenMP v2.5, GNU Compiler Collection and CellSDK 1.1.^[128]^[129]^[130]

On March 22, 2007, SCE and Stanford University released the Folding@Home project for the PlayStation 3.^[131] This program allows PS3 owners to lend the computing power of their consoles to help study the physical process of protein folding.

Accessories

See also: PlayStation 3 accessories and DualShock

Numerous accessories for the console have been developed including the wireless Sixaxis and DualShock 3 controllers, the BD Remote, the PlayStation Eye camera and the PlayTV DVB-T tuner/digital video recorder accessory.^[132]^[133]

At its press conference at the 2007 Tokyo Game Show, Sony announced the DualShock 3 (trademarked DUALSHOCK 3), a PlayStation 3 controller with the same function and design as the Sixaxis, but with vibration capability included.^[134] Hands-on accounts describe the controller as being noticeably heavier than the standard Sixaxis controller, and capable of vibration forces comparable to the DualShock 2.^[135] It was released in Japan on November 11, 2007,^[136] in North America on April 15, 2008,^[137] in Australia on April 24, 2008, in New Zealand on May 9, 2008, in Europe on July 2, 2008,^[138] and in the United Kingdom and Ireland on July 4, 2008.

Software

Operating system

Main article: PlayStation 3 system software

Sony has included the ability for the operating system, referred to as System Software, to be updated.^[139] The updates can be downloaded from the PlayStation Network directly to the PS3 and subsequently installed or downloaded from the official PlayStation website to a computer, transferred to portable storage media, and subsequently installed on the system. Updates can also be installed from game discs that require the update to run the game.^[139]

The PlayStation 3 also includes the ability to install other operating systems,^[140] such as Linux.^[141]

Graphical user interface

Main article: XrossMediaBar — PlayStation 3 XMB

See also: Linux for PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 3 System Software — Compatible media formats

The PlayStation 3 version of the XrossMediaBar (pronounced Cross Media Bar, or abbreviated XMB) includes nine categories of options. These are: Users, Settings, Photo, Music, Video, Game, Network, PlayStation Network, and Friends (similar to the PlayStation Portable media bar). The PS3 includes the ability to store various master and secondary user profiles, manage and explore photos with or without a musical slide show, play music and copy audio CD tracks to an attached storage device, play movies and video files from the hard disk drive, an optional USB mass storage or Flash card, or an optical disc (Blu-ray Disc or DVD-Video), compatibility for a USB keyboard and mouse, and the NetFront web browser supporting in/compatible file download function.^[142] The Friends menu allows mail with emoticon and attached picture features and video chat which requires an optional PlayStation Eye or EyeToy webcam.^[143] The Network menu allows online shopping through the PlayStation Store.^[143]

PlayStation Network

Main articles: PlayStation Network and PlayStation Store

Official logo of the PlayStation Network

In response to Microsoft's success with their Xbox Live network, Sony announced a unified online service for the PlayStation 3 system at the 2006 PlayStation Business Briefing meeting in Tokyo.^[144] Sony also confirmed that the service will always be connected,^[145] free,^[146] and include multiplayer support.^[147] In addition, the registration interface can only be accessed through the PS3 or PSP system interfaces.^[148]

At the Tokyo Game Show on September 21, 2006, it was revealed that users will be able to download some of the thousands of PlayStation and PlayStation 2 titles from the PlayStation Network for about US$5–$15, starting with those with the smallest game data.^[149]

On May 8, 2007 Sony Computer Entertainment announced PlayStation Network Cards,^[150] a form of electronic money that can be used with the Store. PlayStation Network Tickets, available in units of 1,000, 3,000, 5,000, and 10,000 yen, can be purchased at convenience stores throughout Japan.^[151] Each ticket contains a 12 alphanumeric code which can be inputted to the PlayStation Network to place credits in the virtual wallet.^[152] The tickets are available through electronic kiosks at 26,000 convenience stores, including Lawsons, Family Mart, Daily Yamazaki, Ministop and Sunkus.^[153] They are also available at 26,000 post office ATMs, although registration is required first at a special mobile website.^[153]

A similar PlayStation Network Card system based on actual cards instead of tickets was introduced in South Korea, Hong Kong and Taiwan in Summer 2007^[154] and in Spring 2008 in North America.^[155]

PlayStation Home

Main article: PlayStation Home

The PlayStation Home logo

During the 2007 Game Developers Conference Sony announced PlayStation Home, a new free-to-download community based service for the PlayStation Network, which allows users to create an avatar character for their PlayStation 3 system.^[156]^[157] This avatar will have its own apartment, which can be adorned by items players can receive following various achievements.^[156] In the future the service will expand, allowing players to have a wider variety of clothing as well as pets.^[157] Home will be a Second Life-like experience and will allow PlayStation 3 owners to interact in a virtual world.^[158] Home will also act as a meeting place of sorts for players who want to play multiplayer games on the PlayStation 3.^[158] During a video demonstration of Home, Sony said that a Home icon and options will be added to the Xross Media Bar (XMB), it is expected to be available through a firmware update or as a separate download from the PlayStation Store.^[157]^[158] A closed beta was in progress in Europe in May 2007,^[159] and an open beta was scheduled to be available in North America in early fall 2007.^[158] However, at the 2007 Tokyo Game Show, Sony announced that the final worldwide launch of Home, which had originally been scheduled for fall 2007, would take place in Spring 2008.^[160] SCEI President and Group CEO Kaz Hirai later stated that the launch was delayed for further testing and feedback evaluation to provide the best possible experience upon launch.^[161] On April 21, 2008, Sony announced that Home would be delayed further and the closed beta would be extended until fall 2008,^[162] delaying the service's availability to the general public by a full year. SCEE and Jack Buser (SCEA Home Manager) have both confirmed a December 11 release.^[163]

PlayStation Portable connectivity

Playing a PlayStation 3 game on the PSP

Main articles: Remote Play and PlayStation Store (PC) for PSP

The PlayStation Portable can connect with the PlayStation 3 in many ways, including in-game connectivity. For example, Formula One: Championship Edition, a racing game, was shown at E3 2006 using a PSP as a real-time rear-view mirror.^[164] In addition, it is possible to download PlayStation games to the PlayStation 3 from the PlayStation Store. These games were not originally playable on the PS3. They could only be sent to a PSP, and played using the PSP's PlayStation Emulator. Sony added support for playing downloaded PlayStation titles on PS3 on April 18, 2007, with the update to firmware revision 1.70.^[165]^[166]

Sony has also demonstrated the PSP playing back video content, including 1080p content from the PlayStation 3 hard disk across an ad-hoc wireless network. This feature is referred to as Remote Play located under the browser icon on both the PlayStation 3 and the PlayStation Portable. Remote play has since expanded to allow remote access to the PS3 via PSP from any wireless access point in the world.^[167]

Games

Main article: PlayStation 3 games

The PlayStation 3 launched in North America with 14 titles, with another three being released before the end of 2006.^[168] After five days of sales it was confirmed that Resistance: Fall of Man from Insomniac Games was the top-selling game,^{[citation needed]} and was heavily praised by numerous video game websites, including GameSpot and IGN, both of whom awarded it with their PlayStation 3 Game of the Year award for 2006.^[169]^[170] Some titles missed the launch window and were delayed until early 2007, such as The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion, F.E.A.R. and Sonic the Hedgehog. During the Japanese launch, Ridge Racer 7 was the top-selling game, while Mobile Suit Gundam: Crossfire also fared well in sales;^{[citation needed]} both of which were offerings from Namco Bandai. The PlayStation 3 launched in Europe with 24 titles, including ones that were not offered in the North American and Japanese launches, such as Formula One Championship Edition, MotorStorm and Virtua Fighter 5. Resistance: Fall of Man and MotorStorm were the most successful titles of 2007,^[171]^[172] and both games subsequently received sequels in the form of Resistance 2 and MotorStorm: Pacific Rift.^[173]^[174]

At E3 2007, Sony was able to show a number of their upcoming video games for the PlayStation 3, including Heavenly Sword, Lair, Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction, Warhawk and Uncharted: Drake's Fortune; all of which were released in the third and fourth quarters of 2007. They also showed off a number of titles that were set for release in 2008 and 2009; most notably Killzone 2, Infamous, Gran Turismo 5 Prologue, LittleBigPlanet and SOCOM: U.S. Navy SEALs Confrontation.^[175] A number of third-party exclusives were also shown, including Haze, Unreal Tournament 3 and the highly-anticipated Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots,^[176] alongside other high-profile third-party titles such as Grand Theft Auto 4, Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare, Assassin's Creed, Devil May Cry 4 and Resident Evil 5. Two other important exclusive titles for the PlayStation 3, Final Fantasy Versus XIII and White Knight Chronicles, were shown at TGS 2007 in order to appease the Japanese market.^[177]^[178]

Sony have since launched their budget range of PlayStation 3 titles, known as the Greatest Hits range in North America,^[179] the Platinum range in Europe^[180] and The Best range in Japan.^[181] Among the titles available in the budget range include Resistance: Fall of Man, MotorStorm, Uncharted: Drakes Fortune, Rainbow Six: Vegas, Call Of Duty 3, Assassin's Creed and Ninja Gaiden Sigma.

As of the September 30, 2008, there have been 115.1 million games sold for the PlayStation 3.^[182]

Reception

A silver PS3 on showcase in 2006

The PlayStation 3 received generally unfavorable reviews soon after its launch, with many websites and reviewers criticizing its high price and lack of quality launch games.^[183]^[184] However, after a series of price revisions, Blu-ray's victory over HD DVD,^[185] and the release of several well received titles, such as Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots and Uncharted: Drake's Fortune, the system has begun to receive better reviews.

The PS3 was given the number-eight spot on PC World magazine’s list of "The Top 21 Tech Screwups of 2006," where it was criticized for being "Late, Expensive, and Incompatible."^[186] GamesRadar ranked the PS3 as the top item in a feature on game-related PR disasters, asking how Sony managed to "take one of the most anticipated game systems of all time and — within the space of a year — turn it into a hate object reviled by the entire internet", but added that despite its problems the system had "untapped potential."^[187] Business Week summed up the general opinion by stating that it was "more impressed with what [the PlayStation 3] could do than with what it currently does."^[188]

Some journalists judged that the relative ease with which it was possible to buy a PlayStation 3 in stores in the U.S. and Japan soon after its launch, compared with the scarcity of the Wii, was evidence of lukewarm consumer demand for the system.^[189] In addition, there were reports that some Japanese retailers discounted the system as early as January 2007 to stimulate demand.^[190] In an interview with Electronic Gaming Monthly, SCEA Chief of Operations Jack Tretton scoffed at the assertion that PS3s were not flying off store shelves, telling the interviewers, "If you can find a PS3 anywhere in North America that's been on shelves for more than five minutes, I'll give you 1,200 bucks for it."^[191] In response, Penny Arcade's Gabe and Tycho demanded a reward of $13,200 after finding eleven PS3s in stores near their home town.^[192]

Despite the initial negative press, several websites have given the system very good reviews. CNET United Kingdom praised the system saying, "the PS3 is a versatile and impressive piece of home-entertainment equipment that lives up to the hype ... the PS3 is well worth its hefty price tag."^[193] CNET awarded it a score of 8.8 out of 10 and voted it as its number one "must-have" gadget,^[194] praising its robust graphical capabilities and stylish exterior design while criticizing its limited selection of available games.^[195]

In addition, both Home Theater Magazine and Ultimate AV have given the system's Blu-ray playback very favorable reviews, stating that the quality of playback exceeds that of many current standalone Blu-ray players.^[196]^[197] Also, the Convergence Panel of the European Imaging and Sound Association recognized the PS3 as the best media center product in the 2007/2008 award year.^[198]

Hexus Gaming reviewed the PAL version and summed the review up by saying, "...as the PlayStation 3 matures and developers start really pushing it, we’ll see the PlayStation 3 emerge as the console of choice for gaming."^[199] At GDC 2007, Shiny Entertainment founder Dave Perry stated, "I think that Sony has made the best machine. It's the best piece of hardware, without question."^[200] A second review of the PS3 by Ars Technica in June 2008 gave the console an overall mark of 9/10, while the original launch review marked only 6/10.

ps2

2008-12-12T05:32:00.000-08:00

Only a few million people had obtained consoles by the end of 2000 due to manufacturing delays.^[10] Directly after its release, it was difficult to find PS2 units on retailer shelves.^[11] Another option was purchasing the console online through auction websites such as eBay, where people paid over one thousand dollars for a PS2.^[12] The PS2 initially sold well partly on the basis of the strength of the PlayStation brand and the console's backward compatibility, selling over 980,000 units by March 5, 2000, one day after launch, in Japan.^[13] This allowed the PS2 to tap the large install base established by the PlayStation — another major selling point over the competition. Later, Sony gained momentum with new development kits for game developers and more PS2 units for consumers.

A notable piece of advertising for the PS2 launch was accompanied by the popular "PS9" television commercial. 9 was to be the epitome of development, toward which the PS2 was the next step. The ad also prestaged the development of the PlayStation Portable^{[citation needed]} (first released in Japan on December 12, 2004).

Many analysts predicted a close three-way matchup between the PS2 and competitors Microsoft's Xbox and the Nintendo GameCube (GameCube being the cheapest of the three consoles and had an open market of games); however, the release of several blockbuster games during the 2001 holiday season maintained sales momentum and held off the PS2's rivals.^[14]

Although Sony, unlike Sega with its Dreamcast, placed little emphasis on online gaming during its first years^{[citation needed]}, that changed upon the launch of the online-capable Xbox. Sony adapted in late 2002 to compete with Microsoft, with several online first–party titles released alongside it, such as SOCOM: U.S. Navy SEALs to demonstrate its active support for Internet play. Sony also advertised heavily, and its online model had the support of Electronic Arts. Although Sony and Nintendo both started out late, and although both followed a decentralized model of online gaming where the responsibility is up to the developer to provide the servers, Sony's attempt made online gaming a major selling point of the PS2.

In September 2004, in time for the launch of Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas, Sony revealed a new, slimmer PS2 (see Hardware revisions). In preparation for the launch of a new, slimmer PS2 model (SCPH-70000; also known unofficially as the "PStwo"),^{[citation needed]} Sony stopped making the older PS2 model (SCPH-5000x) during the summer of 2004 to let the distribution channel empty its stock of the units.^{[citation needed]} After an apparent manufacturing issue caused some initial slowdown in producing the new unit, Sony reportedly underestimated demand, caused in part by shortages between the time the old units were cleared out and the new units were ready. The issue was compounded in Britain when a Russian oil tanker became stuck in the Suez Canal, blocking a ship from China carrying PS2s bound for the UK. During one week in November, British sales totaled 6,000 units — compared to 70,000 units a few weeks prior.^[15] There were shortages in more than 1700 stores in North America on the day before Christmas.^[16]

On November 29, 2005, the PS2 became the fastest game console to reach 100 million units shipped, accomplishing the feat within 5 years and 9 months from its launch. This achievement occurred faster than its predecessor, the PlayStation, which took 9 years and 6 months to reach the same benchmark.^[17]

[edit] Hardware and software compatibility

OEM PlayStation 2 8 MB Memory Card.

See also: List of PlayStation 2 games, List of PlayStation games incompatible with PlayStation 2, List of PlayStation 2 CD-ROM games, List of PlayStation 2 DVD-9 games, List of PlayStation 2 games with HD support, and Chronology of PlayStation 2 games

In addition to PS2 software, the PS2 can read both CDs and DVDs and is backward compatible with PlayStation games. The ability to play DVD movies was an added incentive for consumers to be able to justify purchasing the PS2 (the MSRP was US$300 in October 2000). The PS2 also supports PlayStation memory cards (for PlayStation game saves only) and controllers, although the memory cards only work with PS1 games and the controllers may not support all functions (such as analog buttons) for PS2 games.

The PlayStation 2's DualShock 2 controller is cosmetically similar to the original DualShock.

The PS2's DualShock 2 controller is essentially an upgraded PlayStation DualShock; analog face, shoulder and D-pad buttons replaced the digital buttons of the original. Like its predecessor, the DualShock 2 controller has force feedback, which is commonly called the "vibration" function. The standard PlayStation 2 memory card has an 8MB capacity and uses Sony's MagicGate encryption. This requirement prevented the production of memory cards by third parties who did not purchase a license for the MagicGate encryption. The memory card can store PlayStation game saves, but PlayStation games cannot read from or write to the card - it can only be used as a backup.

The console also features USB and IEEE 1394 expansion ports. Compatibility with USB and IEEE 1394 devices is dependent on the software supporting the device. For example, the PS2 BIOS will not boot an ISO image from a USB flash drive or operate a USB printer, as the machine's operating system does not include this functionality. By contrast, Gran Turismo 4 is programmed to save screenshots to a USB mass storage device and print images on certain USB printers. A PlayStation 2 HDD can be installed in an expansion bay on the back of the console, with some exceptions (see Hardware revisions below).

[edit] Online

See also: List of PlayStation 2 network games

With the purchase of a separate unit called the Network Adapter (which is built into the slimline model), some PS2 games support online multiplayer. Instead of having a unified, subscription-based online service like Xbox Live, online multiplayer on the PS2 is split between publishers and run on third-party servers. Most recent PS2 online games have been developed to exclusively support broadband Internet access. Xbox Live similarly requires a broadband Internet connection.

All online PS2 games released in and after 2003 are protected by the Dynamic Network Authentication System (DNAS). The purpose of this system is to prevent piracy and online cheating. DNAS will prevent games from being played online if they are determined to be pirated copies or if they have been modified. Recently, however, methods have been developed to get around this protection by modifying key files in the modified game.

Also, some unofficial modifications have been made on the PS2 software allowing it to be used as a fully-functional web browser or messenger when connecting to a certain network. The PS2 can also run Linux.

[edit] Hardware revisions

The PS2 has undergone many revisions, some only of internal construction and others involving substantial external changes. These are colloquially known among PS2 hardware hackers as V0, V1, V2, etc., up to V15b^[18] (as of 2008).

The PS2 is primarily differentiated between models featuring the original case design and "slimline" models, which were introduced at the end of 2004.

[edit] Original case design

The original PlayStation 2 design.

Three of the original PS2 launch models (SCPH-10000, SCPH-15000, and SCPH-18000) were only sold in Japan, and lacked the expansion bay (Dev9) of current PS2 models. These models included a PCMCIA slot instead of the Dev9 port of newer models. A PCMCIA-to-Dev9 adapter was later made available for these models^{[citation needed]}. SCPH-10000 and SCPH-15000 did not have a built-in DVD movie playback and instead relied on encrypted playback software that was copied to a memory card from an included CD-ROM (normally, the PS2 will only execute encrypted software from its memory card, but see PS2 Independence Exploit). V3 had a substantially different internal structure from the subsequent revisions, featuring several interconnected printed circuit boards. As of V4 everything was unified into one board, except the power supply. V5 introduced minor internal changes, and the only difference between V6 (sometimes called V5.1) and V5 is the orientation of the Power/Reset switch board connector, which was reversed to prevent the use of no-solder modchips. V7 and V8 included only minor revisions to V6. Assembly of the PS2 moved to the People's Republic of China during the development of V9 (model numbers SCPH-50000 and SCPH-50001). The upgraded console added an infrared port for the optional DVD remote control, removed the IEEE 1394 port, added the capability to read DVD-RW and DVD+RW discs, added progressive-scan output of DVD movies, and added a quieter fan. V10 and V11 were only minor revisions to V9.

The PS2 standard color is matte black. Several different variations in color have been produced in different quantities and regions, including ceramic white, light yellow, metallic blue (aqua), metallic silver, navy (star blue), opaque blue (astral blue), opaque black (midnight black), pearl white, Sakura purple, satin gold, satin silver, snow white, super red, and transparent blue (ocean blue).^[19]^[20]^[21]^[22]

The small PlayStation logo on the front of the disc tray could be rotated ninety degrees, in order for the logo to be the right way up in both vertical and horizontal console orientations.

[edit] Slimline

The redesigned slimline PlayStation 2.

In September 2004, Sony unveiled its third major hardware revision (V12, model number SCPH-70000). Available in November 2004, it is smaller, thinner, and quieter than the older versions and includes a built-in Ethernet port (in some markets it also has an integrated modem). Due to its thinner profile, it does not contain the 3.5" expansion bay and therefore does not support the internal hard disk drive. It also lacks an internal power supply, similar to the GameCube, and has a modified Multitap expansion. The removal of the expansion bay has been criticized as a limitation due to the existence of titles such as Final Fantasy XI, which require the use of the HDD. The official PS2 Linux also requires an expansion bay to function. Currently only the modified MultiTap is sold in stores, meaning that owners of older PS2s must find a used or non-Sony MultiTap in order to have 4 or 8 players during a single game. Third-party connectors can be soldered into the unit giving hard drive support, however IDE connections were completely removed in the V14 revision, thereby eliminating this option.

Comparison of the Slimline PlayStation 2 design with the PlayStation 2, with an Eye Toy on top.

There are some disputes on the numbering for this PS2 version,^{[citation needed]} since there are actually two sub-versions of the SCPH-70000.^[23] One of them includes the old EE and GS chips, and the other contains the newer unified EE+GS chip, but otherwise they are identical. Since the V12 version had already been established for this model, there were some disputes regarding these sub-versions. Two propositions were to name the old model (with separate EE and GS chips) V11.5 and the newer model V12, and to name the old model V12 and the newer model V13. Currently, most people use V12 for both models, or V12 for the old model and V13 for the newer one.

The V12 model was first released in black, but a silver edition is available in the United Kingdom, Germany, Australia, United Arab Emirates and other GCC Countries, France, Italy, South Africa, and most recently, North America. It is unknown whether or not this will follow the color schemes of the older model, although a limited edition Pink PS2 has become available since March 2007.

V12 (or V13) was succeeded by V14 (SCPH-75001 and SCPH-75002), which contains integrated EE and GS chips, and different ASICs compared to previous revisions, with some chips having a copyright date of 2005, compared to 2000 or 2001 for earlier models. It also has a different lens and some compatibility issues with a different number of PlayStation games and even some PS2 games.

In the beginning of 2005 it was found that some black slimline console power transformers bought between November and December 2004 were faulty and could overheat. The units were recalled by Sony, with the company supplying a replacement model made in 2005.

Later hardware revisions had better compatibility with PlayStation games (Metal Gear Solid: VR Missions operates on most silver models); however, the new Japanese slim models have more issues with playing PlayStation games than the first PS2 revisions.^{[citation needed]}

The mainboard of the new silver slim PS2 (model SCPH-79000).

In 2006, Sony released the latest hardware revisions (V15, model numbers SCPH-77001a and SCPH-77001b). It was first released in Japan on September 15, 2006, including the Silver limited edition. After its release in Japan, it was then released in North America, Europe, and other parts of the world. The new revision uses an integrated, unified EE+GS chip, a redesigned ASIC, a different laser lens, an updated BIOS, and updated drivers.

In July 2007, Sony started shipping a revision of the slimline PlayStation 2 (SCPH-79000) featuring a reduced weight of 600 grams compared to 900 grams of the SCPH-77001, achieved through a reduction in parts. The unit also uses a smaller motherboard as well as a custom ASIC which houses the Emotion Engine, Graphics Synthesizer, and the RDRAM. The AC adaptor's weight was also reduced to 250 grams from the 350 grams in the previous revision.^[24]

Another refinement of the slimline PlayStation 2 (SCPH-90000) was released in Japan on November 22, 2007, and in the US in late 2008, with an overhauled internal design that incorporates the power supply into the console itself, with a further reduced total weight of 720 grams.^[25]

[edit] PSX

Main article: PSX (DVR)

Sony also manufactured a consumer device called the PSX that can be used as a digital video recorder and DVD burner in addition to playing PS2 games. The device was released in Japan on December 13, 2003 and though a U.S. release date was never set, it is believed the system was sold in select locations for a brief amount of time in the U.S. The PSX was poorly received in both areas, some major features were absent from the first revisions of the hardware and experienced very weak sales in spite of major price drops. The system is considered a rarity and is now selling for around $500 on ebay (currently more expensive than the PS3).^[26]

[edit] Sales

Region	Units sold	First available
Japan	21,454,325 (as of October 1, 2008)^[27]	March 4, 2000
United States	42.5 million (as of August 1, 2008)^[28]	October 26, 2000
Europe	48 million (as of May 6, 2008)^[29]	November 24, 2000
Worldwide	140 million (as of July 20, 2008)^[2]

On November 29, 2005, the PlayStation 2 became the fastest game console to reach 100 million units shipped, accomplishing the feat within 5 years and 9 months from its launch. This achievement occurred faster than its predecessor, the PlayStation, which took 9 years and 6 months to reach the same benchmark.^[17]

The PS2 has sold 140 million units worldwide as of July 20, 2008, according to Sony.^[2] In Europe, the PS2 has sold 48 million units as of May 6, 2008, according to Sony Computer Entertainment Europe.^[29] In the United States, the PS2 has sold 42.5 million units as of August 1, 2008, according to the NPD Group.^[28] In Japan, the PS2 has sold 21,454,325 units as of October 1, 2008, according to Famitsu.^[27]

[edit] Accessories

Main articles: DualShock, PlayStation 2 HDD, EyeToy, PlayStation 2 Headset, and Logitech

The PlayStation 2's DualShock 2 controller is largely identical to the PlayStation's DualShock, with the same basic functionality; however, it includes analog pressure sensitivity on the face, shoulder and D-pad buttons, is lighter and includes two more levels of vibration. The L2 and R2 buttons are also significantly larger. The fact that the design did not change pleased some consumers who were already used to the DualShock controller.^{[citation needed]}

The EyeToy digital camera sitting atop a Slimline PS2.

Resident Evil 4 chainsaw controller compatible with the PlayStation 2.

Optional hardware includes DualShock or DualShock 2 controllers, a PS2 DVD remote control, an internal or external HDD, a network adapter, horizontal and vertical stands, PlayStation or PS2 memory cards, light guns (GunCon), fishing rod and reel controllers. Also available are various cables and interconnects, including the Multitap for PlayStation or PS2, S-Video, RGB, SCART, VGA (for progressive scan games and PS2 Linux only), component and composite video cables, an RF modulator, a USB camera (EyeToy), dance pads for Dance Dance Revolution, In the Groove, and Pump It Up titles, Konami microphones for use with the Karaoke Revolution games, dual microphones (sold with and used exclusively for SingStar games), various "guitar" controllers (for the Guitar Freaks series and Guitar Hero series), the drum set controller (sold in a box set (or by itself) with a "guitar" controller and a USB microphone for use with Rock Band), Onimusha 3 katana controller, Resident Evil 4 chainsaw controller, a USB keyboard and mouse, and a headset. Unlike the PlayStation, which required the use of an official Sony PlayStation mouse to play mouse-compatible games, the few PS2 games with mouse support work with standard PC-compatible USB mice. Early versions of the PS2 could be networked via an iLink port, though this had little game support and was dropped. The original PS2 multitap cannot be plugged into the newer slim models (as the multitap connects to the memory card slot as well as the controller slot and the memory card slot on the slimline is shallower). New slim-design multitaps are manufactured for these models, however third-party adapters also exist to permit original multitaps to be used. Some third party manufacturers have created devices that allow disabled people to access the PS2 through ordinary switches etc. One such device is the PS2-SAP from LEPMIS.

[edit] Homebrew development

Main article: Linux for PlayStation 2

Sony released a version of the Linux operating system for the PS2 in a package that also includes a keyboard, mouse, Ethernet adapter and HDD. Currently, Sony's online store states that the Linux kit is no longer for sale in North America. However as of July 2005, the European version was still available. The kit boots by installing a proprietary interface, the run-time environment, which is on a region-coded DVD, so the European and North America kits only work with a PS2 from their respective regions.

In Europe and Australia, the PS2 comes with a free Yabasic interpreter on the bundled demo disc. This allows simple programs to be created for the PS2 by the end-user. This was included in a failed attempt to circumvent a UK tax by defining the console as a "computer" if it contained certain software.^{[citation needed]}

A port of the NetBSD project and BlackRhino GNU/Linux, an alternative Debian-based distribution, are also available for the PS2.

Using homebrew programs (e.g. 'SMS Media Player'^[30]) it is possible to listen to various audio file formats (MP3, Ogg Vorbis, AAC, FLAC, AC3), and watch various video formats (MPEG1, MPEG2, MPEG4-ASP in AVI Container) using the console. Media can be played from any device connected to the console i.e. external USB/Firewire thumb drive/hard disk (FAT32 only), the internal hard disk on early revision consoles, optical CD-R(W)/DVD±R(W) disks, or network shares (Windows Network or PS2 host: protocol).

Homebrew programs can be launched directly from a memory card on unmodified consoles by using certain software that takes advantage of a long known and used exploit, dealing with the boot part of the EE/IOP process.

Homebrew programs can be used to play patched backups of original PS2 DVD games on unmodified consoles, and to install retail discs to an installed hard drive on older models.

Homebrew emulators of older computer and gaming systems have been developed for the PS2^[31]. Using these homebrew programs the PS2 can emulate the; Atari 2600, Atari 5200, BBC Micro, Commodore 64, Game Boy, Sega Genesis, Sega Master System, MSX, Neo Geo, Nintendo Entertainment System, TurboGrafx-16, and Super Nintendo.

[edit] Controversies

It has been suggested that some of the information in this article's Criticism or Controversy section(s) be merged into other sections to achieve a more neutral presentation. (Discuss) (July 2008)

[edit] Disc read error

An unknown number of early PS2 models suffered from problems reading DVD (silver bottom) discs, subsequently, a class action lawsuit was filed against Sony. Sony agreed to provide free repair or replacement for the faulty consoles and continued to do so until February 2005.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Capabilities

Before the PS2 was even released in Japan, there were controversies over the capabilities of the PS2. Japan initially imposed export restrictions on the PS2. The PS2 was even said to contain parts, especially its powerful graphics hardware, which could be used for navigation of missiles.^[32]

2008-12-12T05:28:00.000-08:00

Smoking has been practiced in one form or another since ancient times. Tobacco and various hallucinogenic drugs were smoked all over the Americas as early as 5000 BC in shamanistic rituals and originated in the Peruvian and Ecuadorian Andes.^[6] Many ancient civilizations, such as the Babylonians, Indians and Chinese, burnt incense as a part of religious rituals, as did the Israelites and the later Catholic and Orthodox Christian churches. In Ancient Greece, smoke was used as healing practice and the Oracle of Delphi made prophecies while intoxicated by inhaling natural gases from a natural bore hole. The Greek historian Herodotos also wrote that the Scythians used cannabis for ritual purposes and, to some degree, pleasure. He describes how Scythians burned hemp seed:

“

At once it begins to smoke, giving off a vapour unsurpassed by any vapour-bath one could find in Greece. The Scythians enjoy it so much that they howl with pleasure.^[7]

”

Aztec women are handed flowers and smoking tubes before eating at a banquet, Florentine Codex, 16th century.

Smoking in the Americas probably had its origins in the incense-burning ceremonies of shamans but was later adopted for pleasure or as a social tool.^[8] The Maya employed it in classical times (at least from the 10th century) and the Aztecs included it in their mythology. The Aztec goddess Cihuacoahuatl had a body consisting of tobacco and the priests that performed human sacrifices wore tobacco gourds as symbols of divinity. Even today certain Tzeltal Maya sacrifice 13 calabashes of tobacco at New Year.^[9] The smoking of tobacco and various other hallucinogenic drugs was used to achieve trances and to come into contact with the spirit world. Reports from the first European explorers and conquistadors to reach the Americas tell of rituals where native priests smoked themselves into such high degrees of intoxication that it is unlikely that the rituals were limited to just tobacco. No concrete evidence of exactly what was smoked exists, but the most probable theory is that the tobacco used was much stronger, consumed in extreme amounts or that it was mixed with any number of other, unknown, psychoactive drugs.

A ceremonial pipe of the Mississippian Culture.

In North America the most common form of smoking was in pipes, which today are best known as the peace pipes offered both to other tribes and later European settlers as a gesture of goodwill and diplomacy. In the Caribbean, Mexico and Central and South America, early forms of cigarettes, smoking reeds or cigars were the most common smoking tools. Only in modern times has the use of pipes become fairly widespread. Smoking is depicted in engravings and on various types of pottery as early as the 9th century, but it is not known whether it was limited to just the upper class and priests.^[10]

By the time Europeans arrived in the Americas in the late 15th century there was widespread use of tobacco smoking as a recreational activity. At the banquets of Aztec nobles, the meal would commence by passing out fragrant flowers and smoking tubes for the dinner guests. At the end of the feast, which would last all night, the remaining flowers, smoking tubes and food would be given as a kind of alms to old and poor people who had been invited to witness the social occasion, or it would be rewarded to the servants.^[11]

The tobacco revolution

An engraving from Jakob Balde's Die truckene Trunkenheit ("The Dry Drunkenness") from 1658.

After the European exploration and subsequent colonization of the Americas in the 16th century, the smoking, cultivation and trading of tobacco quickly spread to all corners of the globe. By the mid-17th century every major civilization had been introduced to tobacco smoking and in many cases had already assimilated it into the native culture, despite the attempts of many rulers to stamp the practice out with harsh penalties or fines. Tobacco, both product and plant, followed the major trade routes to major ports and markets, and then on into the hinterlands. The English language term 'smoking' was coined in the late 17th century; until then it was referred to as 'drinking smoke'.^[12]

Soon after its introduction to the Old World, tobacco came under frequent criticism from state and religious leaders. Murad IV, sultan of the Ottoman Empire 1623-40 was among the first to attempt a smoking ban by claiming it was a threat to public moral and health. The Chinese emperor Chongzhen issued an edict banning smoking two years before his death and the overthrow of the Ming dynasty. Later, the Manchu of the Qing dynasty, who were originally a tribe of nomadic horse warriors, would proclaim smoking "a more heinous crime than that even of neglecting archery". In Edo period Japan, some of the earliest tobacco plantations were scorned by the shogunate as being a threat to the military economy by letting valuable farmland go to waste for the use of a recreational drug instead of being used to plant food crops.^[13] Religious leaders have often been prominent among those who considered smoking immoral or outright blasphemous. In 1634 the Patriarch of Moscow forbade the sale of tobacco and sentenced men and women who flaunted the ban to have their nostrils slit and their backs whipped until skin came off their backs. The Western church leader Urban VII likewise condemned smoking in a papal bull of 1642. Despite many concerted efforts, restrictions and bans were almost universally ignored. When James I of England, a staunch anti-smoker and the author of a A Counterblaste to Tobacco, tried to curb the new trend by enforcing a whopping 4000% tax increase on tobacco in 1604, it proved a failure, as London had some 7,000 tobacco sellers by the early 17th century. Later, scrupulous rulers would realise the futility of smoking bans and instead turned tobacco trade and cultivation into lucrative government monopolies.^[14]

Europe

Gentlemen Smoking and Playing Backgammon in an Interior by Dirck Hals, 1627.

A Frenchman named Jean Nicot (from whose name the word nicotine is derived) introduced tobacco to France in 1560. From France tobacco spread to England. The first report of a smoking Englishman is of a sailor in Bristol in 1556, seen "emitting smoke from his nostrils".^[12] Like tea, coffee and opium, tobacco was just one of many intoxicants that was originally used as a form of medicine.^[15] Early modern European medical science was still to a great extent based on humorism, the idea that everything had a specific humoral nature that varied between hot and cold, dry and moist. Tobacco was often seen as something that was beneficially in its heating and drying properties and was assigned an endless list of beneficial properties. The concept of ingesting substances in the form of smoke was also entirely new and was met with both astonishment and great skepticism by Europeans. The debate raged among priests, scientists and laymen whether tobacco was a bane or boon and both sides had powerful supporters. The English king James I was one of the first outspoken skeptics and wrote A Counterblaste to Tobacco, an unforgiving literary assault on what he believed was a menace to society. Though rife with, at times, irrelevant and partial arguments, it did address some of the health issues and pointed out the peculiar fact that tobacco was frequently assigned conflicting, and at times almost miraculous, properties:

“

It makes a man sober that was drunke. It refreshes a weary man, and yet makes a man hungry. Being taken when they goe to bed, it makes one sleepe soundly, and yet being taken when a man is sleepie and drowsie, it will, as they say, awake his braine, and quicken his understanding. As for curing of the Pockes, it serves for that use but among the pockie Indian slaves. Here in England it is refined, and will not deigne to cure heere any other then cleanly and gentlemanly diseases.^[16]

”

The Middle East

A Persian girl smoking by Muhammad Qasim. Isfahan, 17th century.

Cannabis smoking was common in the Middle East before the arrival of tobacco, and was early on a common social activity that centered around the type of water pipe called a hookah. The pipes would often have several tubes from which more than one person could smoke at a time, or the nozzle would be passed around in the many smoking houses that functioned as social hubs in major centers of Muslim culture like Istanbul, Baghdad and Cairo. Smoking, especially after the introduction of tobacco, was an essential component of Muslim society and culture and became integrated with important traditions like weddings, funerals and was expressed in architecture, clothing, literature and poetry.^[17]

There is reference to tobacco in Persian poem dating from before 1536, but because of the lack of any corroborating sources, the authenticity of the source has been questioned. The next reliable eyewitness account of tobacco smoking is by a Spanish envoy in 1617, but by this time the practice was already deeply engrained in Persian society. The water pipe called qalyan (or hookah) most likely originated in India, but it was in Safavid dynasty Persia that it became a refined smoking tool. The pipes of the rich were made of finely crafted glass and precious metals while common people used coconuts with bamboo tubing, and these were used to smoke cannabis before the arrival of tobacco. The two substances in combination proved very popular and were also smoked in normal "dry" pipes, but the water pipe remained the most common smoking tool until the introduction of the cigarette in the 20th century. Foreign visitors to the region often remarked that smoking was immensely popular among Persians; on Ramadan, the Muslim period of fasting when no food was to be eaten while the sun was up, among the first thing many Persians did after sunset was to light their pipes. Both sexes smoked, but for women it was a private affair enjoyed in the seclusion of private homes. In the 19th century Iran was one of the world's largest tobacco exporters and the habit had by then become something considered a national Iranian trait.^[18]

East Asia

A man smoking a kiseru on the cover of Komon gawa ("Elegant chats on fashion"), a novel by Santō Kyōden published in 1790.

After the European discovery of the Americas, tobacco was spread to Asia, first by Spanish and Portuguese sailors and later by the Dutch and English. Spain and Portugal were active in Central and South America, where cigarettes and cigars were the smoking tools of choice, and their sailors smoked mostly cigars. The English and Dutch had contact with the pipe smoking natives of North America, and took over their habits. While the southern Europeans began smoking earlier, it was the long-stemmed pipes of the northerners that became popular in East and Southeast Asia. Tobacco smoking arrived through expatriates in the Philippines and was introduced as early as the 1570s.^[19]

By the early 1600s the kiseru, a long-stemmed Japanese pipe inspired by Dutch clay pipes, was common enough to be mentioned in Buddhist text books for children. The practice of tobacco smoking evolved as a part of the Japanese tea ceremony by employing many of the traditional object used to burn incense for tobacco smoking. The kō-bon (the incense tray) became the tabako-bon, the incense burner evolved into a pot for tobacco embers and the incense pot became an ash tray.

During the Edo period weapons were frequently used as objects with which one could flaunt ones wealth and social status. Since only samurai were allowed to carry weapons, an elaborate kiseru slung from the waist would serve a similar purpose. After the Meiji restoration and the abolishment of the caste system, many craftsmen who previously had worked on decorating swords moved on to designing kiserus and buckles for tobacco pouches. Though mass-production of cigarettes began in the late 19th century, it was not until after World War II that the kiseru went of out style and became an object of tradition and relative obscurity.^[13]

South Asia

Djarum Blacks, a popular brand of Indonesian clove-flavoured cigarettes called kretek.

Cannabis smoking in India has been known at least since 2000 BC^[20] and is first mentioned in the Atharvaveda which dates back a few hundred years BC. Fumigation (dhupa) and fire offerings (homa) are prescribed in the Ayurveda for medical purposes and have been practiced for at least 3,000 years while smoking, dhumrapana (literally "drinking smoke"), has been practiced for at least 2,000 years. Fumigation and fire offerings have been performed with various substances, including clarified butter (ghee), fish offal, dried snake skins and various pastes molded around incense sticks and lit to spread the smoke over wide areas. The practice of inhaling smoke has been employed as a remedy for many different ailments and has not been limited to just cannabis, but also various plants and medicinal concoctions, and is also recommended to be performed daily to promote general health. Before modern times, smoking was done with pipes with stems of various lengths or chillums. Today dhumapana has been replaced almost entirely with cigarette smoking, but both dhupa and homa are still practiced. Beedi, a type of handrolled herbal cigarette consisting of cloves, ground betel nut, and tobacco, usually with rather low proportion of tobacco, are a modern descendant of the historical dhumapana.^[21]

In Indonesia, a specific type of cigarette which includes cloves called kretek was invented in the early 1880s as a way of delivering the therapeutic properties of clove oil, or eugenol, to the lungs. It quickly became a popular cough remedy and in the early 20th century kretek began to be marketed as a pre-rolled cigarette (rather than being mixed and rolled by consumers). In the 1960s and 70s, kretek took on the form of a national symbol, with tax breaks compared to "white" cigarettes^[22] and the production began to shift from traditional hand-rolling to machine-rolling. The industrial method passed the hand-rolled type in numbers in the mid-1980s and today kretek dominates up to 90% of the Indonesian cigarette market. The production is one of the largest sources of income for the Indonesian government and the production, which is spread out on some 500 independent manufacturers, employs some 180,000 people directly and over 10 million indirectly.^[23]

Sub-Saharan Africa

A Nama woman smoking in the Kalahari Desert in Namibia.

Cannabis smoking was introduced to Sub-Saharan Africa through Ethiopia and the east African coast by either Indian or Arab traders in the 13th century or earlier and spread on the same trade routes as those that carried coffee, which originated in the highlands of Ethiopia.^[24] It was smoked in calabash water pipes with terra cotta smoking bowls, apparently an Ethiopian invention which was later conveyed to eastern, southern and central Africa. Tobacco was introduced around 1600 by French merchants in what today is modern-day Gambia and Senegal. At the same time caravans from Morocco brought tobacco to the areas around Timbuktu and the Portuguese brought the commodity (and the plant) to southern Africa, establishing the popularity of tobacco throughout all of Africa by the 1650s. Both imported tobacco and tobacco pipes became prized and valuable trading goods and were both quickly absorbed into African cultural traditions, rituals and politics. A rich artistic tradition of decorated pipes of wood, ceramics and, eventually, metal developed and spawned an endless variety of themes and motifs of all shapes and sizes.

Tobacco and cannabis were used, much like elsewhere in the world, to confirm social relations, but also created entirely new ones. In what is today Congo, a society called Bena Diemba ("People of Cannabis") was organized in the late 19th century in Lubuko ("The Land of Friendship"). The Bena Diemba were collectivist pacifists that rejected alcohol and herbal medicines in favor of cannabis.^[25] Certain other herbs have been and still are smoked by certain African communities. Tabwa shamans smoke lubowe (Amaranthus dubius), a plant that is said to aid in the shamans in seeing invisible spirit sorcerer, even though there are no reports of the substance being hallucinogenic. Some groups, such as the Fang of Gabon consume eboga (Tabernanthe iboga), a mind-altering drug in religious rituals. In modern Africa, smoking is in most areas considered to be modern and an expression of modernity, and many of the strong adverse opinions that prevail in the West receive much less attention.^[26]

Opium smoking

Main article: Opium

An illustration of an opium den on the cover of Le Petit Journal, July 5, 1903.

In the 19th century the practice of smoking opium became common. Previously it had only been eaten, and then primarily for its medical properties. A massive increase in opium smoking in China was more or less directly instigated by the British trade deficit with Qing dynasty China. As a way to amend this problem, the British began exporting large amounts of opium grown in the Indian colonies. The social problems and the large net loss of currency led to several Chinese attempts to stop the imports which eventually culminated in the Opium Wars. Opium smoking later spread with Chinese immigrants and spawned many infamous opium dens in China towns around South and Southeast Asia and Europe. In the latter half of the 19th century, opium smoking became popular in the artistic community in Europe, especially Paris in artists' neighborhoods such as and Montparnasse and Montmartre being virtual "opium capitals". While opium dens that catered primarily to emigrant Chinese continued to exist in China Towns around the world, the trend among the European artists largely abated after the outbreak of World War I.^[27]

The social stigma

Ever since smoking was introduced outside of the Americas, there has been much vehement opposition to it. Arguments had ranged from socio-economic ones, with tobacco being considered a usurper of good farm land, to purely moralistic ones, where many religiously devout individuals saw tobacco as merely another form of immoral intoxication. Many arguments were presented to the effect that smoking was harmful, and even if the critics were in the end right about many of their claims, the complaints were usually not based on scientific arguments, and if they were, these often relied on humorism and other pre-modern scientific methods. Although physicians such as Benjamin Rush had claimed tobacco use (including smoking) negatively impacted one's health as early as 1798,^[28] it was not until the early 20th century that serious medical studies began to be conducted. One of the true breakthroughs came in 1948, when the British physiologist Richard Doll published the first major studies that proved that smoking could cause serious health damage.^[29]

In some countries with increased taxes, restrictions on where to smoke and anti-smoking advertising there has been a reaction through smoking defense groups since the 1990s. These groups feel that new regulations and the general atmosphere are oppressive and the stigmatization placed on them has crossed lines not seen before. Some smoking defense groups are independent^[30], while others are funded by tobacco companies.^[31]

Physiology

A graph that shows the efficiency of smoking as a way to absorb nicotine compared to other forms of intake.

Inhaling the vaporized gas form of substances into the lungs is a quick and very effective way of delivering drugs into the bloodstream and affects the user within seconds of the first inhalation. The lungs consist of several million tiny bulbs called alveoli that altogether have an area of over 70 m² (about the area of a tennis court). This can be used to administer useful medical as well as recreational drugs such as aerosols, consisting of tiny droplets of a medication, or as gas produced by burning plant material with a psychoactive substance or pure forms of the substance itself. Not all drugs can be smoked, for example the sulphate derivative that is most commonly inhaled through the nose, though purer free base forms of substances can, but often require considerable skill in administering the drug properly. The method is also somewhat inefficient since not all of the smoke will be inhaled.^[32] The inhaled substances trigger chemical reactions in nerve endings in the brain due to being similar to naturally occurring substances such as endorphins and dopamines, which are associated with sensations of pleasure. The result is what is usually referred to as a "high" that ranges between the mild stimulus caused by nicotine to the intense euphoria caused by heroin, cocaine and methamphetamines.^[33]

Inhaling smoke into the lungs, no matter the substance, has adverse effects on one's health. The incomplete combustion produced by burning plant material, like tobacco or cannabis, produces carbon monoxide, which impairs the ability of blood to carry oxygen when inhaled into the lungs. There are several other toxic compounds in tobacco that constitute serious health hazards to long-term smokers from a whole range of causes; vascular abnormalities such as stenosis, lung cancer, heart attacks, strokes, impotence, low birth weight of infants born by smoking mothers.

Smoking substances

The most popular type of substance that is smoked is tobacco. There are many different tobacco cultivars which are made into a wide variety of mixtures and brands. Tobacco is often sold flavored, often with various fruit aromas, something which is especially popular for use with water pipes, such as hookahs. The second most common substance that is smoked is cannabis, made from the flowers or leaves of Cannabis sativa. The substance is considered illegal in most countries in the world and in those countries that tolerate public consumption, it is usually only pseudo-legal. Despite this, a considerable percentage of the adult population in many countries have tried it with smaller minorities doing it on a regular basis. Since cannabis is illegal or only tolerated in most jurisdictions, there is no industrial mass-production of cigarettes, meaning that the most common form of smoking is with hand-rolled cigarettes (often called joints) or with pipes. Water pipes are also fairly common, and when used for cannabis are called bongs.

A few other recreational drugs are smoked by smaller minorities. Most of these substances are controlled, and some are considerably more intoxicating than either tobacco or cannabis. These include crack cocaine, heroin, methamphetamine and PCP. A small number of psychedelic drugs are also smoked, including DMT, 5-Meo-DMT, and Salvia divinorum.

Smoking tools and paraphernalia

An elaborately decorated pipe.

Even the most primitive form of smoking requires tools of some sort to perform. This has resulted in a staggering variety of smoking tools and paraphernalia from all over the world. Whether tobacco, cannabis, opium or herbs, some form of receptacle is required along with a source of fire to light the mixture. The most common today is by far the cigarette, consisting of a tightly rolled tube of paper, which is usually manufactured industrially or rolled from loose tobacco, rolling papers which can include a filter. Other popular smoking tools are various pipes and cigars. A less common but increasingly popular form is through vaporizers, which operate using hot air convection by heating and delivering the substance without combustion; thereby decreasing health risks to lungs.

Other than the actual smoking equipment, many other items are associated with smoking; cigarette cases, cigar boxes, lighters, matchboxes, cigarette holders, cigar holders, ashtrays, pipe cleaners, tobacco cutters, match stands, pipe tampers, cigarette companions and so on. Many of these have become valuable collector items and particularly ornate and antique items can fetch high prices at the finest auction houses.

A new development towards a healthier way of smoking has been made with the introduction of e-smoking or e-cigarettes. These cigarettes do not contain the harmful substances tar or carbon monoxide and can be used as an alternative to smoking conventional cigarettes or as a means to gradually lower the nicotine input to help stop smoking.

Social effects and demographics

Smoking any tobacco product, %, Males^[34]

Smoking any tobacco product, %, Females^[34]

Smoking, primarily of tobacco, is an activity that is practiced by some 1.1 billion people, and up to 1/3 of the adult population.^[35] The image of the smoker can vary considerably, but is very often associated, especially in fiction, with individuality and aloofness. Even so, smoking of both tobacco and cannabis can be a social activity which serves as a reinforcement of social structures and is part of the cultural rituals of many and diverse social and ethnic groups. Many smokers begin smoking in social settings and the offering and sharing of a cigarette is often an important rite of initiation or simply a good excuse to start a conversation with strangers in many settings; in bars, night clubs, at work or on the street. Lighting a cigarette is often seen as an effective way of avoiding the appearance of idleness or mere loitering. For adolescents, it can function as a first step out of childhood or as an act of rebellion against the adult world. Other than recreational drug use, it can be used to construct identity and a development of self-image by associating it with personal experiences connected with smoking. The rise of the modern anti-smoking movement in the late 19th century did more than create awareness of the hazards of smoking; it provoked reactions of smokers against what was, and often still is, perceived as an assault on personal freedom and has created an identity among smokers as rebels or outcasts, apart from non-smokers:

“

There is a new Marlboro land, not of lonesome cowboys, but of social-spirited urbanites, united against the perceived strictures of public health.^[36]

”

The importance of tobacco to soldiers was early on recognized as something that could not be ignored by commanders. By the 17th century allowances of tobacco were a standard part of the naval rations of many nations and by World War I cigarette manufacturers and governments collaborated in securing tobacco and cigarette allowances to soldiers in the field. It was asserted that regular use of tobacco while under duress would not only calm the soldiers, but allow them to withstand greater hardship.^[37] Until the mid-20th century, the majority of the adult population in many Western nations were smokers and the claims of anti-smoking activists were met with much skepticism, if not outright contempt. Today the movement has considerably more weight and evidence of its claims, but a considerable proportion of the population remains steadfast smokers.^[38]

Public health

Main article: Health effects of tobacco smoking

Chart showing the relation between lung-cancer and smoking.

Of the various methods of consumption the primary health risks pertain to diseases of the cardiovascular system by the vector of smoking, which overtime allows high quantities of carcinogens to deposit in the mouth, throat, and lungs. Tobacco-related diseases are some of the biggest killers in the world today and are cited as one of the biggest causes of premature death in industrialized countries. In the United States some 500,000 deaths per year are attributed to smoking-related diseases and a recent study estimated that as much as 1/3 of China's male population will have significantly shortened life-spans due to smoking.^[39]

Many governments are trying to deter people from smoking with anti-smoking campaigns in mass media stressing the harmful long-term effects of smoking. Passive smoking, or secondhand smoking, which affects people in the immediate vicinity of smokers, is a major reason for the enforcement of smoking bans. This is a law enforced to stop individuals smoking in indoor public places, such as bars, pubs and restaurants. The idea behind this is to discourage smoking by making it more inconvenient, and to stop harmful smoke being present in enclosed public spaces. A common concern among legislators is to discourage smoking among minors and many states have passed laws against selling tobacco products to underage customers. Despite the emphasis of living a healthy lifestyle, many developing countries have yet acknowledged that a change is needed. Anti-smoking campaigns and futher education are required to promote a safer environment and explain the negative effects of ETS in developing countries.

The effects of addiction on society vary considerably between different substances that can be smoked and the indirect social problems that they cause, in great part because of the differences in legislation and the enforcement of narcotics legislation around the world. Though nicotine is a highly addictive drug, its effects on cognition are not as intense, noticeable or debilitating as cannabis, cocaine, amphetamines or any of the opiates. As tobacco is also not an illegal drug, there is no black market with high risks and high prices for consumers.

Economic effects

Please help improve this section by expanding it. Further information might be found on the talk page. (October 2008)

Estimates from the Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids claim that smokers cost the U.S. economy $97.6 billion a year in lost productivity, and that an additional $96.7 billion is spent on public and private health care combined.^[40] A male smoker in the United States that smokes more than one pack a day can expect an average increase of $19,000 just in medical expenses over the course of his lifetime. A U.S. female smoker that also smokes more than a pack a day can expect an average of $25,800 additional healthcare costs over her lifetime.^[41] These costs must be offset against the extra tax revenue that smoking provides.

Smoking in culture

Smoking has been accepted into culture, in various art forms, and has developed many distinct, and often conflicting or mutually exclusive, meanings depending on time, place and the practitioners of smoking. Pipe smoking, until recently one of the most common forms of smoking, is today often associated with solemn contemplation, old age and is often considered quaint and archaic. Cigarette smoking, which did not begin to become widespread until the late 19th century, has more associations of modernity and the faster pace of the industrialized world. Cigars have been, and still are, associated with masculinity, power and is an iconic image associated with the stereotypical capitalist. Smoking in public has for a long time been something reserved for men and when done by women has been associated with promiscuity. In Japan during the Edo period, prostitutes and their clients would often approach one another under the guise of offering a smoke and the same was true for 19th century Europe.^[13]

Art

An Apothecary Smoking in an Interior by Adriaen van Ostade, oil on panel, 1646.

The earliest depictions of smoking can be found on Classical Mayan pottery from around the 9th century. The art was primarily religious in nature and depicted deities or rulers smoking early forms of cigarettes.^[42] Soon after smoking was introduced outside of the Americas it began appearing in painting in Europe and Asia. The painters of the Dutch Golden Age were among the first to paint portraits of people smoking and still lifes of pipes and tobacco. For southern European painters of the 17th century, a pipe was much too modern to include in the preferred motifs inspired by mythology from Greek and Roman antiquity. At first smoking was considered lowly and was associated with peasants.^[43] Many early paintings were of scenes set in taverns or brothels. Later, as the Dutch Republic rose to considerable power and wealth, smoking became more common amongst the affluent and portraits of elegant gentlemen tastefully raising a pipe appeared. Smoking represented pleasure, transience and the briefness of earthly life as it, quite literally, went up in smoke. Smoking was also associated with representations of both the sense of smell and that of taste.

In the 18th century smoking became far more sparse in painting as the elegant practice of taking snuff became popular. Smoking a pipe was again relegated to portraits of lowly commoners and country folk and the refined sniffing of shredded tobacco followed by sneezing was rare in art. When smoking appeared it was often in the exotic portraits influenced by Orientalism, projecting an image of European superiority over its colonies and a perception of male dominance of a feminized Occident. The theme of the exotic and alien "Other" escalated in the 19th century, fueled by the rise in popularity of ethnology during the Enlightenment.^[44]

Skull with a Burning Cigarette by Vincent van Gogh, oil on canvas, 1885.

In the 19th century smoking was common as a symbol of simple pleasures; the pipe smoking "noble savage", solemn contemplation by Classical Roman ruins, scenes of an artists becoming one with nature while slowly toking a pipe. The newly empowered middle class also found a new dimension of smoking as a harmless pleasure enjoyed in smoking saloons and libraries. Smoking a cigarette or a cigar would also become associated with the bohemian, someone who shunned the conservative middle class values and displayed his contempts for conservatism. But this was a pleasure that was to be confined to a male world; women smokers were associated with prostitution and was not considered an activity in which proper ladies should involve themselves.^[45] It was not until the turn of the century that smoking women would appear in paintings and photos, giving a chic and charming impression. Impressionists like Vincent van Gogh, who was a pipe smoker himself, would also begin to associate smoking with gloom and fin-du-siècle fatalism.

While the symbolism of the cigarette, pipe and cigar respectively were consolidated in the late 19th century, it was not until the 20th century that artists began to use it fully; a pipe would stand for thoughtfulness and calm; the cigarette symbolized modernity, strength and youth, but also nervous anxiety; the cigar was a sign of authority, wealth and power. The decades following World War II, during the apex of smoking when the practice had still not come under fire by the growing anti-smoking movement, a cigarette casually tucked between the lips represented the young rebel, epitomized in actors like Marlon Brando and James Dean or mainstays of advertising like the Marlboro Man. It was not until the 1970s when the negative aspects of smoking began to appear; the unhealthy lower-class loser, reeking of cigarette smoke and lack of motivation and drive, especially in art inspired or commissioned by anti-smoking campaigns.^[46]

Film

Film star and iconic smoker Humphrey Bogart.

Ever since the era of silent films, smoking has had a major part in film symbolism. In the hard boiled film noir crime thrillers, cigarette smoke often frames characters and is frequently used to add an aura of mystique or even nihilism. One of the forerunners of this symbolism can be seen in Fritz Lang's Weimar era Dr Mabuse, der Spieler, 1922 (Dr Mabuse, the Gambler), where men mesmerized by card playing smoke cigarettes while gambling. Women smokers in film were also early on associated with a type of sensuous and seductive sexuality, most notably personified by German film star Marlene Dietrich. Similarly, actors like Humphrey Bogart and Audrey Hepburn have been closely identified with their smoker persona and some of their most famous portraits and roles have involved a thick mist of cigarette smoke. Hepburn often enhanced the glamour with a cigarette holder, most notably in the film Breakfast at Tiffany's.

Since World War II, smoking has gradually become less frequent on screen as the obvious health hazards of smoking have become more widely known. With the anti-smoking movement gaining greater respect and influence, conscious attempts not to show smoking on screen are now undertaken in order to avoid encouraging smoking or giving it positive associations, particularly for family films. Smoking on screen is more common today among characters who are portrayed as anti-social or even criminal.^[47]

Literature

The cover of My Lady Nicotine: A Study in Smoke (1896) by J.M. Barrie, otherwise best known for his play Peter Pan.

Just as in other types of fiction, smoking has had an important place in literature and smokers are often portrayed as characters with great individuality, or outright eccentrics, something typically personified in one of the most iconic smoking literary figures of all, Sherlock Holmes. Other than being a frequent part of short stories and novels, smoking has spawned endless eulogies, praising its qualities and affirming the author's identity as a devoted smoker. Especially during the late 19th century and early 20th century, a panoply of books with titles like Tobacco: Its History and associations (1876), Cigarettes in Fact and Fancy (1906) and Pipe and Pouch: The Smokers Own Book of Poetry (1905) were written in the UK and the US. The titles were written by men for other men and contained general tidbits and poetic musings about the love for tobacco and all things related to it, and frequently praised the refined bachelor's life. The Fragrant Weed: Some of the Good Things Which Have been Said or Sung about Tobacco, published in 1907, contained, among many others, the following lines from the poem A Bachelor's Views by Tom Hall that were typical of the attitude in many of the books:

“

So let us drink
To her, – but think
Of him who has to keep her;
And sans a wife
Let's spend our life
In bachelordom, – it's cheaper.^[48]

”

These works were all published in an era before the cigarette had become the dominant form of tobacco consumption and pipes, cigars and chewing tobacco were still commonplace. Many of the books were published in novel packaging that would attract the learned smoking gentleman. Pipe and Pouch came in a leather bag resembling a tobacco pouch and Cigarettes in Fact and Fancy (1901) came bound in leather, packaged in an imitation cardboard cigar box. By the late 1920s, the publication of this type of literature largely abated and was only sporadically revived in the later 20th century.^[49]

Music

There have been few examples of tobacco in music in early modern times, though there are occasional signs of influence in pieces such as Johann Sebastian Bach's Edifying Thoughts of a Tobacco-Smoker.^[50] However, from the early 20th century and onwards smoking has been closely associated with popular music. Jazz was from early on closely intertwined with the smoking that was practiced in the venues where it was played, such as bars, dance halls, jazz clubs and even brothels. The rise of jazz coincided with the expansion of the modern tobacco industry, and in the United States also contributed to the spread of cannabis. The latter went under names like ”tea”, ”muggles” and ”reefer” in the jazz community and was so influential in the 1920s and 30s that it found its way into songs composed at the time such as Louis Armstrong's Muggles Larry Adler's Smoking Reefers and Don Redman's Chant of The Weed. The popularity of marijuana among jazz musicians remained high until the 1940s and 50s, when it was partially replaced by the use of heroin.^[51]

Another form of modern popular music that has been closely associated with cannabis smoking is reggae, a style of music that originated in Jamaica in the late 1950s and early 60s. Cannabis, or ganja, is believed to have been introduced to Jamaica in the mid-19th century by Indian immigrant labor and was primarily associated with Indian workers until it was appropriated by the Rastafari movement in the middle of the 20th century.^[52] The Rastafari considered cannabis smoking to be a way to come closer to God, or Jah, an association that was greatly popularized by reggae icons such as Bob Marley and Peter Tosh in the 1960s and 70s.^[53]